Psychological Interventions Implemented to Improve Job Satisfaction of Schoolteachers in South Africa: A Scoping Review ()
1. Introduction
Conceivably one of the most fundamental definitions of job satisfaction was by Locke (1976) that theorized that “job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from an appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (p. 1304). Two fundamental elements instituting the construct of job satisfaction include emotional state and appraisal. Ilies and Judge (2004) advocated that the two elements be defined as the affective and cognitive elements that interplay to measure overall job satisfaction. Hence, job satisfaction is regarded as a complex construct with several antecedents that bear strain on the fundamental elements of job satisfaction (Alegre et al., 2016) . Furthermore, Judge and Klinger (2008) also highlighted that job satisfaction is worthy as a construct as it has an active place in organizations and the subjective well-being of individuals. In understanding the complexity of the construct, one cannot comprehend it without comprehending the facets that sustain it (Judge & Klinger, 2008; Scarpello & Campbell, 1983) . Skalli et al. (2008) synthesized overall job satisfaction as the cumulative product of partial satisfaction with various aspects that accompany work.
1.1. Current and Past Theoretical Perspectives and Practices of Schoolteacher Job Satisfaction
Research on schoolteacher job satisfaction and causal constructs that underline the phenomenon has seen a rapid increase over the past two decades (cf. Burić & Moè, 2020; Edinger & Edinger, 2018; Klassen & Chiu, 2010; Lopes & Oliveira, 2020; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2020; Toropova et al., 2021; Zembylas & Papanastasiou, 2005 ). From these research endeavors, job satisfaction in the context of teaching is synthesized as the emotional response schoolteachers encounter within their profession and teaching role (see Edinger & Edinger, 2018; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2020 ). To elaborate on the research on job satisfaction and the casual constructs Toropova et al. (2021) concluded that school-working conditions and characteristics of teachers could be closely associated with schoolteacher job satisfaction. Furthermore, Zembylas and Papanastasiou (2005) modelled that schoolteacher empowerment is related to job satisfaction. In addition, Klassen and Chiu (2010) also found that gender, years of experience, and job stress is associated with self-efficacy and job satisfaction. As seen, a variety of complex antecedents underpin the job satisfaction of the schoolteacher population. Crossman and Harrris (2006) categorized antecedents of job satisfaction into environmental, psychological, or demographical factors. Antecedents that can either impede or promote job satisfaction within the respective categories can include but are not limited to factors such as teamwork, work-family balance, autonomy, organizational commitment (Alegre et al., 2006) ; self-efficacy, organizational support (Edinger & Edinger, 2018) ; work climate, shared leadership (Lopes & Oliveira, 2020) ; age, gender, and length of service (Crossman & Harris, 2006) . Such factors could play a role in the motivation and enthusiasm of schoolteachers (see Baluyos et al., 2019 ). Consequently, this could have an impact on the well-being of teachers and successful school learner outcomes.
Thus, a question arose that necessitates the need to evaluate or implement interventions for promoting job satisfaction along with its antecedents directed toward this population (cf. Burić & Moè, 2020; Butt et al., 2005; Capone & Petrillo, 2020 ). Globally, such interventions include the work of Umar et al. (2015) which focused on improving the job satisfaction of teachers working with children with disabilities. Umar et al. (2015) noted an increase in job satisfaction after the implementation of an intervention to improve knowledge and skills. Dreer (2020) found that an online-based positive intervention increased job satisfaction and teacher engagement that lasted for two weeks, however a long-term decrease in emotional exhaustion became evident. However, for the South African context, the adaption and implementation of interventions in general remain a challenge due to the complexity of the South African society, its communities, and the unique historical backdrop (see Howell, 2019 ).
1.2. Job Satisfaction of Schoolteachers in South Africa
Job satisfaction plays an important role in the teaching profession, impacting not only schoolteachers’ feelings, behaviors, and thoughts, but also school learners and the education sector itself ( Nigama et al., 2018; Sahito & Vaisanen, 2016 ). South African schoolteachers had experienced a variety of issues at school that negatively played a role in their job satisfaction, including high work pressure, workload, stress, poor working conditions, conflicts, strikes, relationship issues, poor management, poor discipline, lack of support, overcrowded classrooms, poor relationships with school learners, lack of respect from school learners, HIV/Aids impact, job insecurity, unreasonable demands and policies by the South African Department of Basic Education, lack of mentoring, lack of resources, changes in the curriculum, teacher quality, teacher turnover, as well as the Covid-19 pandemic (Botha & Hugo, 2021; Caluza & Niemand, 2019; Dludla, 2019; Iwu et al., 2013; Kamstra, 2005; McKay, 2018; Naidoo, 2019; Okeke & Mtyuda, 2017; Padmanabhanunni & Pretorius, 2021; Shibiti, 2020; Strydom et al., 2012; Swanepoel & Saurombe, 2022; Vermooten, 2018; Wheeler, 2017) . Schoolteachers play a vital role in the development and future of any country, and job satisfaction plays a pivotal role in the turnover, retention, productivity, and loyalty rates amongst schoolteachers concerning their occupation (Raymond, 2018) . Research has found that schoolteachers who are satisfied with their jobs reported higher levels of productivity, reduced rates of absenteeism and turnover, and experienced less work-related stress and burnout while also demonstrating a sturdy tendency to perform (Iwu et al., 2013) . Okeke and Mtuyda (2017) also depict that teacher job satisfaction is central to the sustainability of social transformation and that dissatisfaction erodes the quality of teaching in South African schools and contributes to disengagement with key stakeholders within the South African basic education sector.
1.3. Review Aim and Question
The research aim was to broadly explore what interventions have been scientifically recorded to improve the job satisfaction of schoolteachers, within the South African context. Due to the lack of research implementation and dissemination of job satisfaction interventions, the reviewers aimed to include not only high-quality methodological interventions but to provide a scope/broad description of all research studies covering this topic. The review also aimed to contribute to and guide the direction of research and more importantly highlight the need for the implementation of job satisfaction interventions for schoolteachers in the South African context. The research study was guided by the following research question: What interventions have been implemented and scientifically recorded to improve the job satisfaction of schoolteachers in South Africa?
2. Methods
2.1. Review Approach
A scoping review was conducted for this research study. Scoping reviews include an assessment of the magnitude and body of literature available regarding a specific phenomenon (Grant & Booth, 2009; Munn et al., 2018) . Munn et al. (2018) further suggested that scoping reviews be utilized in the process to identify probable knowledge gaps regarding a specific phenomenon.
2.2. Research Procedure
2.2.1. Targeted Body of Literature
To ensure methodological alignment of the scoping review study, the reviewers focused the search for relevant literature based on the review research question. Consequently, the reviewers searched for literature regarding job satisfaction intervention or programmes for South African schoolteachers. Literature was retrieved through the EBSCO Discovery Service (EDS) of the North-West University Library and Information Service. The EDS provides researchers with ease of access to a wide variety of national and international databases (at the time of database search this included 73 databases). Scientific literature included in the search procedure: journal articles, dissertations, theses, books, and reports. Keywords utilized during the search included: schoolteachers or school educators, and job satisfaction or work satisfaction or job dissatisfaction or work dissatisfaction, and intervention or program/programme, and South Africa or South African.
2.2.2. Gathering the Data
A systematic procedure for the search, screening and inclusion of relevant literature contributed to the methodological integrity of the review study (Brunton et al., 2012) . The initial search yielded a total of 187 references for possible inclusion. The limiters for the search were set per the inclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria included: scientific literature available in Afrikaans or English, and all up-to-date literature concerning job satisfaction interventions implemented within the South African school context directed towards schoolteachers.
The identified literature was firstly systematically screened by title and abstracts against the inclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria guided the title and abstract screening process. During the title and abstract screening, n = 99 studies were excluded as they did not meet the criteria for inclusion. Full-text screening on the initial search was conducted when titles and abstracts did not provide adequate information. Consequently, n = 14 full-text studies were assessed for final inclusion. Only n = 2 studies were included for final analyses as these two studies were the only studies that met the criteria of interventions implemented in South African schools to increase the job satisfaction of schoolteachers. The systematic screening process was conducted independently by two reviewers (JM & RdT). Figure 1 (Flow diagram for search and inclusion) illustrates the systematic search procedure. Differences in the selection of literature were resolved through discussion and recorded. A third reviewer (WdK) was consulted throughout the screening procedure and ensured quality control of the screening process. All reviewers (WdK, RdT, JM and LM) agreed on the final selection of literature for data analysis (n = 2).
2.2.3. Analysis of the Data
The reviewers utilized a thematic analysis method as it allowed the reviewers to translate the data of included literature systematically and flexibly (Braun & Clarke, 2006) . The thematic analysis comprised of six stages as per Braun and Clarke (2006) . Firstly, the reviewers familiarized themselves with the included literature. Secondly, initial codes were generated across the included literature. Thirdly, the reviewers searched and collated the initial codes into themes. Fourthly, reviewed the themes to ensure that all themes are supported by the available data. Fifthly, the themes were provided with thematic names. Lastly, the reviewers presented the themes in the findings section, followed by a discussion. Two reviewers were actively involved during the analysis phase (WdK & RdT), and the final findings were checked for quality and accuracy by a third reviewer (LM).
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Figure 1. Flow diagram for search and inclusion.
2.2.4. Ensuring Quality of Data
During the systematic gathering and thematic analysis of the literature, the reviewers ensured the quality of data by following the five appraisal prompts as adapted by Dixon-Woods et al. (2006) . The five prompts applicable to all literature are summarized as: Are aims and objective clearly stated? Is the research design aligned with the aims and objectives? Is a clear account of the research process of findings evident? Is there sufficient data to support research findings? Is the data analysis method appropriate? The prompts aligned with the objective of the review, as relevant literature was only excluded when scientific credibility was not upheld (Dixon-Woods et al., 2006) . Furthermore, during the analysis phase, the reviewers actively engaged with the data and held continuous discussions regarding the direction of the research findings.
2.2.5. Studies Reviewed and Presentation of Data
The findings of the scoping review are reported in Table 1, with a specific focus on the following data charting elements (see Peters et al., 2017 ). Author(s), year
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Table 1. Data charting of included studies.
Note: Study 2 did not actively measure job satisfaction prior to the implementation of the intervention. However, a qualitative and quantitative analysis after the intervention was conducted to evaluate levels of job satisfaction (see results).
of publication, aim, method, sample, duration of the intervention, outcomes, and key findings. All the data charting elements were utilized to align with the rationale and objectives of the scoping review to answer the research question. The findings section subsequently outlines the basic information of the included literature and interventions, whereafter the thematic analysis findings are outlined. An overall discussion provides an in-depth description of the included studies to give forth a summarized overview supported by previous literature findings.
2.2.6. Ethical Considerations
The scoping review study was approved by the Health Research Ethics Committee (NWU-00289-21-A1) of the Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, South Africa. All researchers within this research study followed responsible and ethical knowledge production guidelines (Khumalo & De Klerk, 2018) .
3. Findings
Key results of the study by Fourie (2006) are reported in Tables 2-5. The study by Fourie (2006) aimed to improve the job satisfaction of schoolteachers. In contrast, Graham (2000) aimed to evaluate the level of job satisfaction of schoolteachers after the implementation of an intervention. Both interventions were implemented in the following provinces and districts in South Africa (Table 2).
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Table 2. Location and type of schools included.
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Table 3. Sample description (study 1).
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Table 4. Statistical results (study 1).
Note. Level of significance. **p < 0.01.
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Table 5. Statistical results (study 2).
3.1. Study 1: Fourie (2006)
Fourie (2006) specifically developed and implemented an intervention in an attempt to increase the overall job satisfaction of schoolteachers. Fourie (2006) aimed to increase job satisfaction by enabling school managerial teams with a training course (three-day training course) and availed guidance to the managerial teams after the training course. The content and direction of the intervention on school managerial teams were informed by an additional questionnaire that focused to identify the needs of the managerial actions of managerial teams. This in turn informed the training course that formed part of the intervention. The intervention was continuously assessed during the nine-month implementation period.
The needs identified and included within the training course covered content such as communication, planning, decision-making, organization skills, leadership and motivation, and the power of positive thoughts. The content within the training sessions was first introduced through lecturing material. Secondly, participants partook in group work sessions to identify and facilitate current problems. Finally, the managerial teams reported on the practical implications and findings of the problems. Pre- and post-levels of job satisfaction were measured with the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ). Table 3 provides a detailed description of the final included sample.
From the study, it is evident that job satisfaction significantly increased after the intervention strategy. In contrast, a decrease in overall job satisfaction became evident for participants of the control group. Table 4 provides the reader with an overview of the statistical results of the pre and post-test means as measured by the MSQ.
3.2. Study 2: Graham (2000)
Various aims were prevalent during the study however for this scoping review the researchers only focused on the results provided regarding the measurement of job satisfaction. Graham (2000) evaluated the overall job satisfaction of teachers, as a subset within the overall aim of the intervention, after an initial intervention was implemented. Graham (2000) accessed research participants through a holistic organizational development intervention known as the St Mary’s approach to school development. St Mary’s intervention aimed to increase schools’ effectiveness through the coherence of interdependent parts that makes the school a system or organization. Graham (2000) evaluated the job satisfaction of participants that partook (n = 105) in the intervention as well as participants that did not partake in the intervention (n = 86). In addition, a qualitative exploration included two focus groups (n = 10; n = 12) of participants that partook in the intervention over the two years.
The overall job satisfaction questionnaire by Warr et al. (1979) was utilized to measure job satisfaction. The job satisfaction questionnaire is scored on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 to 7, with a maximum score of 105 and a minimum score of 15, with a higher score indicating a higher level of job satisfaction. The difference in the overall mean score of job satisfaction was noted (not statistically significant) between the two groups and indicated that the group not included as part of the intervention displayed a higher level of job satisfaction (see Table 5). Although the original aim of Graham (2000) was to evaluate the level of job satisfaction after the intervention, valuable information arose from the statistical results along with the qualitative data, after exposure to the holistic intervention programme and is further presented within the themes identified.
The Thematic analysis of the included studies identified the following themes that relate to the job satisfaction of teachers. The following themes are described with subthemes.
3.3. Themes Identified
Theme 1: Internal school factors
The analysis across the studies indicated similarities in terms of the following internal factors that contribute to the levels of job satisfaction.
The needs within each specific school(s). It was found that intervention programmes cannot be blueprints across all school and school contexts (Graham, 2000) . Graham (2000) also highlighted that researchers who formulate interventions should be cognizant of the sequence, design, and implementation of the intervention and these elements should be evaluated holistically in an order that meets the needs of the specific school. As part of the study by Fourie (2006) , the intervention aimed to specifically address needs as identified by a needs assessment. The needs assessment identified the needs of the schools within the specific district and the intervention was designed in accordance. Thus, intervention programmes should be set to identify the needs of specific schools and the community they are based within.
Socio-economic status of school and access to resources. Both interventions included schools that were situated within lower socio-economic districts. Graham (2000) included schools within the Attridgeville school district. Schools from this district rely on donations and financial support to improve their resources. Fourie (2006) noted that all schools were from previously disadvantaged remote locations.
Theme 2: External factors
From the included studies it became evident that external factors contribute to the job satisfaction of teachers as well as have a direct influence on the potential success of intervention programmes.
Monetary rewards. Graham (2000) found that teachers are often dissatisfied with monetary rewards of their occupation. Fourie (2006) also noted that levels of job satisfaction in terms of the monetary compensation indicator had declined, even though the intervention indicated an overall positive increase in levels of job satisfaction. On inspection Fourie (2006) found that this could be because teachers during the intervention experienced higher volumes of workloads due to new curriculum changes and problems with a shortage in staff that led to current staff taking over more classes and was not compensated for the extra workload.
The South African Department of Basic Education. Graham (2000) found from the focus group that educators believed that external policy changes or decisions made by the South African Department of Basic Education impede the job satisfaction of teachers. Fourie (2006) also noted that during the implementation phase of the study that a new curriculum as mandated by the South African Department of Basic Education had increased the workload of teachers, which could further impede levels and indicators of job satisfaction.
Job security. Another antecedent found to influence job satisfaction includes the lack of job security as teachers are often redeployed without prior consultation and creating a sense of job insecurity that also influences organizational commitment (Graham, 2000) . Fourie (2006) also found that job security as an antecedent for job satisfaction had declined during the intervention programme, this could be attributed to the fact that participants experienced job losses due to redundancy in the schools.
Positive external factors. In contrast, Graham (2000) found that other positive factors outside the parameters increased the job satisfaction of teachers. The introduction of feeding schemes in the school district increased teachers’ job satisfaction as teachers found that it increased school learners’ concentration and increased parental participation in school learners’ education, and this improved the effectiveness of their work.
4. Discussion
The research study aimed to identify and describe the extent of available scientifically recorded literature on interventions implemented to increase levels of job satisfaction in South African school teachers. From the extensive search strategy, the research team could only locate two applicable interventions; Fourie (2006) aimed to enhance the level of job satisfaction through an antecedent of leadership and mentoring practices and Graham (2000) measured the level of job satisfaction after the implementation of an overall holistic intervention strategy.
Across the included literature similarities could be noted regarding the implementation of the interventions. Interventions were implemented in lower economic status schools, which in turn created an analysis that had a few opposing propositions. However, it was found that various antecedents of job satisfaction could be divided into two main themes that included internal school factors and external school factors. It is prominent to note that the implementation of interventions and results is often greatly impeded or enhanced by these identified themes. Crossman and Harris (2006) also noted that environmental factors affect the job satisfaction of teachers. In addition, Crossman and Harris (2006) also identified demographic and psychological factors that could affect job satisfaction, however, from the included studies in this scoping review these factors were not prominent as the level and strategy of intervention did not focus on these antecedents.
Internal school factors were particularly attributed to the needs of each specific school(s) and/or socio-economic level and access to resources of schools. Within the literature, it is prominent that South African schools based in low socio-economic communities have poor access to resources and a dire need for school infrastructure exists. Okeke and Mtyuda (2017) found problems with poor facilities, lack of maintenance, shortage of water in schools, and poor roads leading to schools in these communities. Draga (2017) stated that most schools have no stocked libraries or laboratory facilities, some schools have no access to electricity or have an unreliable electricity supply, and almost half of schools have no access to proper sanitation facilities. Du Plessis and Mestry (2019) uncovered similar conditions within schools situated in rural communities. It could be stated that within the South African context, these elements play a vital role in the level of job satisfaction among teachers.
External factors are particularly prominent in the success of any intervention as these factors are often not accounted for within the scope of the intervention. The external factors identified from the included studies in this scoping review were summarized as monetary rewards, job security, the South African Department of Basic Education, and positive external factors. Policy changes and decisions made by the South African Department of Basic Education undermine the effectiveness of interventions and are often implemented without prior consultation with relevant stakeholders (Fourie, 2006; Graham, 2000) . The underlining factor for monetary rewards and job security could perhaps be attributed to the South African Department of Basic Education. A loss of jobs or redeployment, as governed by the South African Department of Basic Education, in turn, leads to increased workload and causes dissatisfaction with monetary rewards (Fourie, 2006; Graham, 2000) . These factors are generally described as not being controlled by any stakeholders within the specific school or school environment and can also not be controlled by the intervention. To this extent, it can be noted that these external factors create an unfavorable climate that could negatively impede the working of the interventions. In contrast, positive external factors could attribute to the success of interventions, as seen in the case of Graham (2000) where a feeding scheme introduced in the schools had an external positive effect on teacher job satisfaction.
From these studies, it is noted that for job satisfaction interventions to be successfully implemented no predetermined guideline could be proposed as the needs of the school and socio-economic status should inform the intervention, while accounting for possible external antecedents. Furthermore, it became apparent that various antecedents have a direct and/or indirect influence on levels of job satisfaction, and any combination of external or internal factors could negatively or positively influence job satisfaction (also see Burić & Moè, 2020; Butt et al., 2005; McInerney et al., 2018 ). Moreover, other factors such as demographic or psychological antecedents could further add complexity to levels of job satisfaction. Consequently, the strategy and level of intervention should be highlighted to determine what antecedents a proposed intervention will aim to address to improve job satisfaction.
4.1. Limitations
Limitations of the research study should be highlighted. Firstly, only scientifically recorded interventions were included, and the researchers acknowledge that more interventions that have not been formally documented could exist. Secondly, the inclusion of only two interventions along with the homogenous sample within the interventions brings forth the notion that findings could not apply to all schools within South Africa. Thirdly, findings have a direct link to environmental factors and a lack of psychological and demographic factors are present. Lastly, from an axiology perspective, the researchers declare that they take special interest in the well-being of teachers in schools, which can notably be seen in the strong advocating rhetoric structure. However, the researchers bracketed these values through prolonged engagement with the data and had continuous in-depth reflection discussions during the analysis phase, to give forth valid and reliable findings.
4.2. The Practical Implication of Job Satisfaction on South African Schoolteachers and Recommendations
Graham (2000) found that after the intervention teachers had a greater sense of teamwork, improved communication between teachers and the managerial staff of schools, and continuous development of teachers and the school through the setting of goals. These qualitative findings were noted although a lower job satisfaction was found, in contrast to the group that was not exposed to the intervention. Furthermore, interventions also better equipped teachers to better adapt to change that occurs within and outside the school environment. With functional school systems, resource gains are possible, optimizing school effectiveness (Hakanen et al., 2008) from resource pooling and a sense of interconnectedness (Harms et al., 2018) .
In contrast, Fourie (2006) suggested that other factors also impede job satisfaction including disruptive school learner discipline, high volumes of workloads and inappropriate working hours. Educators who perceive to be working in a dysfunctional school system are less motivated and committed (Visser, 2006) . Lack of organizational commitment also becomes prevalent (Graham, 2000) , which contributes to the further disintegration of the school system in South Africa (Okeke & Mtyuda, 2017) . To address the current state of teacher job satisfaction in the South African context, researchers should be aware of all the possible antecedents that underpin the complex construct of job satisfaction. The call for job satisfaction interventions that address the unique situation of a diverse education system is prominent. These interventions should attempt to find the most applicable antecedent or combination of antecedents to improve levels of job satisfaction while accounting for the contextual elements that accompany schools.
The findings of the present research study indicated a lack of available scientifically recorded interventions or programmes that aimed to increase job satisfaction among schoolteachers in South Africa. From the initial database search, the research team identified a large body of literature that has extensively researched job satisfaction and its antecedent for schoolteachers in South Africa. The initial search yielded 28 possible studies that have previously either explored, described, or interpreted the antecedents and/or consequences of various levels of job satisfaction. With the lack of interventions and abundance of theoretical explorations available within the South African school teacher context, the researchers advocate and highlight the dire need for practical implementation of interventions to improve job satisfaction. If the abundance of the literature indicated the problems that impede levels of job satisfaction, why is so little effort done to address these issues? From the 28 identified studies it could be stated that rich findings exist to formulate successful interventions to address the problem. Subsequently, follow-up research questions arose. 1) What are the various antecedents that impede job satisfaction of schoolteachers in South Africa. 2) How could job satisfaction intervention be formulated to have the best results?
5. Conclusion
The research study concludes that various antecedents could have an impact on the job satisfaction of South African schoolteachers. Such antecedents include internal school factors such as needs within schools as well as the socio-economic status and access to resources in schools. External factors such as monetary rewards, job security, and policy changes by the South African Department of Basic Education, and positive external factors influence the level of job satisfaction. External factors are often contextual factors that cannot be controlled during the implementation phase of the intervention. Notably, the complexity of job satisfaction makes it difficult to formulate effective interventions. While the complexity raises various concerns, a current concern is the lack of scientifically recorded interventions to address job satisfaction in the South African context. This in turn led the researchers to advocate for the dire need for the formulation of effective interventions. However, how these interventions should be formulated to achieve the best possible outcomes, is yet still unanswered.
Author’s Contributions
WdK contributed to the conceptualization, validated the search and appraisal strategy, conducted the formal analysis, and prepared the article for publication. RdT conducted the search and appraisal strategy, conducted the formal analysis, and prepared the article for publication. JM contributed to the conceptualization, and methodology of the research study and conducted the search and appraisal strategy. LM contributed to the conceptualization, validated the formal analysis, and reviewed and edited the final article.
Funding Information
This research study received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit organizations.
Data Availability
All data is available from electronic sources and references within the reference list.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.