Pesticide-Handling Practices in Agriculture in El Salvador: An Example from 42 Patient Farmers with Chronic Kidney Disease in the Bajo Lempa Region

Abstract

Introduction: The occupational toxic risks from agricultural activities in El Salvador affect human and environmental health. The objective of this paper is to describe the management of pesticide by farmers confirmed with a chronic kidney disease of uncertain etiology (CKDu) not associated to diabetes mellitus or hypertension. Methods: The study involved 42 male patients older than 18 years old with confirmed CKDu that have participated in different stages of pesticides management. This is a cross-sectional study; it was conducted from January to June 2011, in three communities of Bajo Lempa region, El Salvador. An interview was especially designed to investigate which pesticides were used and the farmer practices at different stages of pesticide use. Statistical descriptive analysis was carried out for the several studied variables. Results: All interviewed people had a direct relationship with agricultural activities. The majority of patients had poor education, 19% were illiterate and 55% only have primary education. Most farmers with CKDu had been exposed more than 10 years to hazardous pesticides. The most used pesticide was Hedonal/2, 4 D (100%). 95% interviewed patients mixed different pesticides and 63% dumped empty pesticide containers in the fields. Interviewees did not use appropriate personal protective equipment (100%). Conclusions: There is high use of hazardous pesticides by patients and some of these are banned and some are legal in El Salvador, but prohibited by other countries. Interviewed CKDu patients had high exposure to toxic pesticides due to the misuse in almost all stages. There is inadequate legislation and a poor law enforcement to prevent the misuse of pesticides in El Salvador.

Share and Cite:

Mejía, R. , Quinteros, E. , López, A. , Ribó, A. , Cedillos, H. , Orantes, C. , Valladares, E. and López, D. (2014) Pesticide-Handling Practices in Agriculture in El Salvador: An Example from 42 Patient Farmers with Chronic Kidney Disease in the Bajo Lempa Region. Occupational Diseases and Environmental Medicine, 2, 56-70. doi: 10.4236/odem.2014.23007.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] Forget, G. (1993) Balancing the Need for Pesticides with the Risk to Human Health: Impact of Pesticide Use on
Health in Developing Countries. Proceedings of a Symposium Held in Ottawa, 17-20 September 1990, 2-16.
http://idl-bnc.idrc.ca/dspace/bitstream/10625/18585/1/93970_p2-16.pdf
[2] WHO (2009) The WHO Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard and Guidelines to Classification.
http://www.inchem.org/documents/pds/pdsother/class_2009.pdf
[3] Farcas, A., Matei A.V., Florian, C., Badea, M. and Coman, G. (2013) Health Effects Associated with Acute
and Chronic Exposure to Pesticides. In: Simeonov, L.I., MAcaev, F.Z. and Simeonova, B.G., Eds., Environmental
Security Assessment and Management of Obsolete Pesticides in Southeast Europe, Springer, Dordrecht, 103-110.
[4] Pimentel, D., Acquay, H., Biltonen, M., Rice, P., Silva, M., Nelson, J., et al. (1992) Environmental and Economic
Costs of Pesticide Use, BioScience, 42, 750-760. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1311994
[5] Damalas, C.A., Telidis, G.K. and Thanos, S.D. (2008) Assessing Farmers’ Practices on Disposal of Pesticide
Waste after Use. Science of the Total Environment, 390, 341-345.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.10.028
[6] Keifer, M.C. (2000) Effectiveness of Interventions in Reducing Pesticide Overexposure and Poisonings. American
Journal of Preventive Medicine, 18, 80-89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(00)00144-6
[7] Lozier, M.J., López, J.F., del Rosario, A., Pintor, E., Fuortes, L., Cook, T.M., et al. (2013) Personal Air Sampling
and Risks of Inhalation Exposure during Atrazine Application in Honduras. International Archives of
Occupational and Environmental Health, 86, 479-488. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00420-012-0776-2
[8] Mekonnen, Y. and Agonafir, T. (2002) Pesticide Sprayers’ Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of Pesticide Use
on Agri- cultural Farms of Ethiopia. OccupMed, 6, 311-315. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/occmed/52.6.311
[9] Jenkins, J.J. (2003) Aspectos sanitarios de los plaguicidas en El Salvador en el contexto Centroamericano.
Plaguicidas y Salud en El Salvador: Aproximación a la Problemática. 1st Edition, Organización Panamericana de
la Salud, San Salvador.
[10] Murray, D., Wesseling, C., Keifer, M., Corriols, M. and Henao, S. (2002) Surveillance of Pesticide-Related
Illness in the Developing World: Putting the Data to Work. International Journal of Occupational
and Environmental Health, 8, 243-248.
[11] Ministerio de Salud (SV) (2013) Reporte de intoxicaciones por plaguicidas 2007-2012. http://simmow.salud.gob.sv
[12] VanDervort, D.R., Lopez, D.L., Orantes, C.M. and Rodríguez, D.S. (2014) Spatial Distribution of Unspecified
Chronic Kidney Disease in El Salvador by Crop Area Cultivated and Ambient Temperature. MEDICC Review,
16, 31-38.
http://www.medicc.org/mediccreview/pdf.php?lang=&id=352.
[13] Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería de El Salvador. Manual de Insumos Agrícolas 2012 (2012) Dirección
General de Economía Agropecuaria.
http://www.mag.gob.sv/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=21&Itemid=232
[14] Barrera, A.M. (2009) Estudio de Concentración de Mercado de Agroquímicos en El Salvador. Ministerio de
Agricultura y Ganadería de El Salvador, El Salvador.
[15] EuropeanCommission (2013) EU Pesticides Database.
http://ec.europa.eu/sanco_pesticides/public/index.cfm?event=activesubstance.selection
[16] Rotterdam Convention (2010) http://www.pic.int/
[17] NationalInstitute of Health (SV) (2013) Declaración de San Salvador Abordaje integral de la enfermedad renal
túbulo- intersticial crónica de Centroamérica (CKDu) que afecta predominantemente a las comunidades agrícolas.
Ministry of Public Health (SV), San Salvador. http://www.salud.gob.sv/
[18] Orantes, C.M., Herrera, R., Almaguer, M., Brizuela, E., Nú?ez, L., Alvarado, N., Fuentes, J., Bayarre, H., et al. (2014) Epidemiology of Chronic Kidney Disease in Adults of Salvadoran Agricultural Communities. MEDICC Review, 16, 23-30. http://www.medicc.org/mediccreview/pdf.php?lang=&id=351
[19] Peraza, S., Wesseling, C., Aragon, A., Leiva, R., García-Trabanino, R.A., Torres, C., Jakobsson, K., Elinder, C.G. and Hogstedt, C. (2012) Decreased Kidney Function among Agricultural Workers in El Salvador. American Journal of Kidney Diseases, 59, 531-540. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22300650
http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2011.11.039
[20] Orantes, C.M., Herrera, R., Almaguer, M., Brizuela, E.E., Hernández, C.E., Bayarre, H., et al. (2011) Chronic Kidney Disease and Associated Risk Factors in the Bajo Lempa Region of El Salvador: Nefrolempa Study, 2009. MEDICC Review, 13, 14-22. http://www.medicc.org/mediccreview/pdf.php?lang=en&id=221
[21] Orantes, C.M. (2010) Enfermedad renal crónica y factores de riesgo en el Bajo Lempa, El Salvador: Estudio Nefrolempa. Ministryof Health (SV), San Salvador.
[22] Medina, R., García, M., de Larios, S., Gómez, I., Cuellar, N. and Rosa, H. (2002) Dimensiones
Ambientales de la Vulnerabilidad en El Salvador: El Caso del Bajo Lempa. PRISMA, San Salvador.
http://www.prisma.org.sv/uploads/media/dimensiones_
ambientales_de_la_vulnerabilidad_en_ESV_caso_bajolempa.pdf
[23] Sudmeier-Rieux, K., Masundire, H., Rizvi, A. and Rietbergen, S. (2006) Ecosystems, Livelihoods and Disasters: An Integrated Approach to Disaster Risk Management. IUCN, Gland.
http://proactnetwork.org/proactwebsite/media/download/resources/Ecosystem-based-DRR/IUCN_ecosystems_livelihoods_disasters_2006.pdf
[24] Schipper, L.F. (2004) Exploring Adaptation to Climate Change: A Development Perspective. Ph.D. Thesis, University of East Anglia, Norwich.
[25] Schipper, L.F. (2006) Climate Risk, Perceptions and Development in El Salvador. Tyndall Centre Working Paper 93. International Water Management Institute Colombo, Sri Lanka.
http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/sites/default/files/wp93.pdf.
[26] Komar, O. (2002) Priority Conservation Areas for Birds in El Salvador. Animal Conservation, 5, 173-183.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1367943002002238
[27] EPA (2006) Protect Yourself from Pesticides: Guide for Pesticides Handlers. United States Environmental Protection Agency. EPA, Washington.
http://www.epa.gov/region1/eco/pest/pdfs/PesticideHandlersSafetyTrainingManualEnglish.pdf
[28] Waichman, A.V., Eve, E. and Nina, N.C. (2007) Do Farmers Understand the Information Displayed on Pesticide Product Labels? A Key Question to Reduce Pesticides Exposure and Risk of Poisoning in the Brazilian Amazon. Crop Protection, 26, 576-583. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2006.05.011
[29] Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería de El Salvador (2000) Listado de sustancias prohibidas en El Salvador.
http://www.marn.sv/component/phocadownload/category/29-formularios-solicitudes-residuos-desechos-peligrosos.html?download=177:listado-de-sustancias-prohibidas-en-el-salvador
[30] Galloway, T. and Handy, R. (2003) Immunotoxicity of Organophosphorous Pesticides. Ecotoxicology, 12, 345-363.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1022579416322
[31] Salomon, G., Onguseitan, O.A. and Kirsch, J. (2000) Pesticides and Human Health, a Resource for Health Care Professionals. Physicians for Social Responsability and Californians for Pesticide Reform. Californians for Pesticide Reform, Oakland. http://pesticidereform.org/section.php?id=13
[32] McKinlay, R., Plant, J.A., Bell, J.N.B. and Voulvoulis, N. (2008) Endocrine Disrupting Pesticides: Implications for Risk Assessment. Environmetal International, 34, 168-183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2007.07.013
[33] Newhart, K.L. (2006) Environmental Fate of Malathion. California Department of Pesticide Regulation.
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/fatememo/efate_malathion.pdf
[34] Pope, C.N. and Chakraborti, T.K. (1992) Dose-Related Inhibition of Brain and Plasma Cholinesterase in Neonatal and Adult Rats Following Sublethal Organophosphate Exposures. Toxicology, 73, 35-43.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0300-483X(92)90168-E
[35] US Fish & Wildlife Service (2014) DDT and Other Organochlorine Pesticides. US Fish and Wildlife Service Division of Environmental Quality. http://www.fws.gov/contaminants/info/ddt.html.
[36] Hayes, T., Haston, K., Tusi, M., Hoang, A., Haeffele, C. and Vonk, A. (2003) Atrazine-Induced Hermaphroditism at 0.1 ppb in American Leopard Frogs (Rana pipiens): Laboratory and Field Evidence. Environmental Health Perspectives, 111, 568-575. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241446/
[37] US. EPA (2012) Carbofuran I.R.E.D. FACTS. US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/carbofuran_ired_fs.htm
[38] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2014) Public Health Statement for Pyrethrins and Pyrethroids.
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=785&tid=153
[39] Guo, Y.L., Wang, B.J., Lee, C.C. and Wang, J.D. (1996) Prevalence of Dermatoses and Skin Sensitisation Associated with Use of Pesticides in Fruit Farmers of Southern Taiwan. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 53, 427-431.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oem.53.6.427
[40] Hong, S.Y., Yang, D.H. and Hwang, K.Y. (2000) Associations between Laboratory Parameters and Outcome of Paraquat Poisoning. Toxicology Letters, 118, 53-59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4274(00)00264-2
[41] US EPA (1997) Registration Eligibility Decision (RED): Paraquat Dichloride. US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/0262red.pdf
[42] Goldsmith, D.F. (2000) Linking Environmental Cancer with Occupational Epidemiology Research: The Role of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology, 19, 171-175. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10905524
[43] Walters, J. (1999) Environmental Fate of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid. California Department of Pesticide Regulation. Environmental Monitoring and Pest Management Department of Pesticide Regulation Sacramento, CA 95814-3510.
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/fatememo/24-d.pdf
[44] Kumar, A., Verma, A. and Kumar, A. (2013) Accidental Human Poisoning with a Neonicotinoid Insecticide, Imidacloprid: A Rare Report from Rural India. Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences, 3, 123-126.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejfs.2013.05.002
[45] Papachirstos, D.P. and Milonas, P.G. (2008) Adverse Effects of Soil Applied Insecticides on the Predatory Coccinellid Hippodamia undecimnotata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Biological Control, 47, 77-81.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2008.06.009
[46] Samsel, A. and Seneff, S. (2013) Glyphosate’s Suppression of Cytochrome P450 Enzymes and Amino Acid Biosynthesis by Gut Microbiome: Pathways to Modern Diseases. Entropy, 15, 1416-1463.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/e15041416
[47] Jayasumana, C., Gunatilake, S. and Senanayake, P. (2014) Glyphosate, Hard Water and Nephrotoxic Metals: Are They the Culprits behind the Epidemic of Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology in Sri Lanka? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 11, 2125-2147. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110202125
[48] Paz-y-Mi?o, C., Sánchez, M.E., Arevalo, M., Mu?oz, M.J., Witte, T., De-la-Carrera, G.O. and Leone, P.E. (2007) Evaluation of DNA Damage in an Ecuadorian Population Exposed to Glyphosate. Genetics and Molecular Biology, 30, 456-460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1415-47572007000300026
[49] Meza-Joya, F.L., Ramírez-Pinilla, M.P. and Fuentes-Lorenzo, J.L. (2013) Toxic, Cytotoxic, and Genotoxic Effects of a Glyphosate Formultaion (Roundup?SL-Cosmoflux?411F) in the Direct-Developing Frog Eleutherodactylus johnstonei. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis, 54, 362-373. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/em.21775
[50] de CastilhosGhisi, N. and Cestari, M.M. (2013) Genotoxic Effects of the Herbicide Roundup? in the Fish Corydoras paleatus (Jenyns 1842) after Short-Term, Environmentally Low Concentration Exposure. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185, 3201-3207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2783-x
[51] Pesticide Action Network (2011) List of Prohibited Pesticides.
http://sanstandards.org/userfiles/file/SAN%20Prohibited%20Pesticide%20List%20November%202011.pdf
[52] Stockholm Convention (2008) Listing of POPs in the Stockholm Convention.
http://chm.pops.int/TheConvention/ThePOPs/ListingofPOPs/tabid/2509/Default.aspx
[53] Environmental Protection Agency (2013) List: Banned or Severely Restricted Pesticides (US Environmental Protection Agency). http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/regulating/restricted.htm
[54] Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería (SV) (2004) Acuerdo N° 18. Diario oficial Republica de El Salvador en la América Central, 362, 18-02-2004
http://www.diariooficial.gob.sv/diarios/do-2004/02-febrero/
[55] Jeyaratnam, J., Lun, K.C. and Phoon, W.O. (1987) Survey of Acute Pesticide Poisoning among Agricultural Workers in four Asian Countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 65, 521-527.
[56] Occupational Safety Health Administration (2013) Hazard Communication Standard: Safety Data Sheets.
https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3514.html
[57] Ellis, S.D. (1997) Key Issues in Rural Transport in Developing Countries. TRL Report 260. Transport Research Foundation Group of Companies. http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/pdf/outputs/r5591trl260.pdf
[58] Aguilar, M.Y. (2007) Vulnerabilidad y adaptación al cambio climático de los pobladores rurales de la planicie costera central de El Salvador.
http://www.marn.gob.sv/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=193&Itemid=252
[59] Schilmann, A., Lacasa?a, M., Blanco-Mu?oz, J., Aguilar-Gardu?o, C., Salinas-Rodríguez, A., Flores-Aldana, M. and Cebrián, M.E. (2010) Identifying Pesticide Use Patterns among Flower Growers to Assess Occupational Exposure to Mixtures. Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 67, 323-329. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oem.2009.047175
[60] Carpenter, D.O., Arcaro, K. and Spink, D.C. (2002) Understanding the Human Health Effects of Chemical Mixtures. Environmental Health Perspectives, 110, 25-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.02110s125
[61] FAO (2001) Guidelines on Good Practice for Ground Application of Pesticides.
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/documents/Pests_Pesticides/Code/Old_guidelines/Ground_application.pdf
[62] Zyoud, S.H., Sawalha, A.F., Sweileh, W.M., Awang, R., Al-Khalil, S.I., Al-Jabi, S.W. and Bsharat, N.M. (2010) Knowledge and Practices of Pesticide Use among Farm Workers in the West Bank, Palestine: Safety Implications. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine, 15, 252-261. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12199-010-0136-3
[63] Hashmi, I. and Khan, A.D. (2011) Adverse Health Effects of Pesticides Exposure in Agricultural and Industrial Workers of Developing Country. In: Stoytcheva, M., Ed., Pesticides—The Impacts of Pesticides Exposure, InTech.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/13835
[64] Archibald, B.A., Solomon, K.R. and Stephenson, G.R. (1995) Estimation of Pesticide Exposure to Greenhouse Applicators Using Video Imaging and Other Assessment Techniques. American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 56, 226-235. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15428119591017051
[65] Hwang, S.A., Gomez, M.I., Stark, A.D., St John, T.L., Pantea, C.I., Hallman, E.M., May, J.J. and Scofield, S.M. (2000) Safety Awareness among New York Farmers. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 38, 71-81.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-0274(200007)38:1<71::AID-AJIM8>3.0.CO;2-X
[66] Perry, M.J., Marbella, A. and Layde, P.M. (2002) Compliace with Required Pesticide-Specific Protective Equipment Use. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 41, 70-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajim.10026
[67] Mekonnen, Y. and Agonafir, T. (2002) Pesticide Sprayers’ Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of Pesticide Use on Agricultural Farms of Ethiopia. Occupational Medicine, 52, 311-315. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/occmed/52.6.311
[68] Koh, D. and Jeyaratnam, J. (1996) Pesticides Hazards in Developing Countries. Science of the Total Environment, 188, S78-S85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(96)05279-5
[69] Ministerio de Economía de El Salvador (2012) Encuesta de Hogares de propósitos múltiples 2012. Survey of Homes with Multiple Purposes 2012. http://www.digestyc.gob.sv/EHPM2012/digestyc/resultado.pdf
[70] Azaroff, L.S. and Neas, L.M. (1999) Acute Health Effects Associated with Nonoccupational Pesticide Exposure in Rural El Salvador. Environmental Research Section A, 80, 158-164.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/enrs.1998.3878
[71] Nomen, R., Sempere, J., Chávez, F., de López, N.A. and Rovira, M.D. (2012) Measurement of Pollution Levels of Organochlorine and Organophosphorus Pesticides in Water, Soil, Sediment, and Shrimp to Identify Possible Impacts on Shrimp Production at Jiquilisco Bay. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 19, 3547-3555.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22573096
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-012-0916-y
[72] Urrutia, J. and Navas, V.M. (2007) Condiciones de saneamiento de las aguas del estero de Jaltepeque y su relación con la morbilidad. AKADEMOS: órgano de difusión de la Red Docencia-Investigación. A?o 1, 2, 2, 21-34.
[73] Garcia-Trabanino, R., Dominguez, J., Jansa, J.M. and Oliver, A. (2005) Proteinuria e insuficiencia renal crónica en la costa de El Salvador: Detección con métodos de bajocosto y factoresasociados. Nefrología, 25, 31-38.
[74] Almanguer, M., Herrera, R. and Orantes, C.M. (2014) Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology in
Agricultural Communities. MEDICC Review, 16, 9-15. http://www.medicc.org/mediccreview/pdf.php?lang=&id=349
[75] Ecobichon, D.J. (2001) Pesticide Use in Developing Countries. Toxicology, 160, 27-33.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0300-483X(00)00452-2
[76] EPA (2011) Code of Federal Regulations Tittle 40 Part 171: Certification of Pesticide Applicators. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC.
http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/CFR-2011-title40-vol24/CFR-2011-title40-vol24-sec171-11/content-detail.html
[77] Pan American Health Organization (2013) 52nd Directing Council of Pan American Health Organization.
http://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1259&Itemid=1159

Journals Menu
Follow SCIRP
Contact us
+1 323-425-8868
customer@scirp.org
WhatsApp +86 18163351462(WhatsApp)
Click here to send a message to me 1655362766
Paper Publishing WeChat

Copyright © 2023 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.