Gender-Based Discrimination and Organizational Development: Voices of Female Teachers in Savelugu ()
1. Introduction
Gender-based discrimination, defined as a situation where a person is denied an opportunity or misjudged on the basis of their sex, continues to be a severe problem that militates against the development of both sexes, particularly females. Without a doubt, this results in a rise in gender inequality in several dimensions (Dabla-Norris, Kochar, Suphaphiphat, Ricka, & Tsounta, 2015). Gender-based discrimination is common in both developed and developing countries. The United Nations’ 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women and the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women sparked international interest in the fight against gender-based discrimination, which has been described as a global health and development issue (Sarfo-Kantankah, 2022). Females are more prone than males to face discrimination and violence at all stages of development. As girls attempt to reach maturity, they are particularly affected by societal expectations and cultural regulations. Being born a female can push a girl child to the fringes of society, where her safety is denied, and her human rights are routinely violated (Rafferty, 2013). Thus, females are more likely to face gender-based discrimination and violence in many societies than males.
Gender-based discrimination is a topic that is constantly being discussed on a global scale because it is virtually impossible to eradicate, as evidenced by the recent efforts by governments and civil society organizations across the globe to address this global problem (Liebowitz & Zwingel, 2014). As a result, achieving Goal 8 of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which emphasizes the need for decent work and economic growth, is challenged (Sachs, 2012). The attempt to reduce gender-based discrimination at home and at the workplace must be pursued vigorously (Cunningham-Parmeter, 2014). To grasp the magnitude of gender-based discrimination, it may be helpful to recall the global gender facts confirmed in the United Nation’s 2012 Gender Report. The report discovered that women perform 66% of the world’s work, produce 50% of the world’s food, earn 10% of the world’s income, and own 1% of the world’s property (Nomadolo, 2021). Again, according to the European Commission’s Gender Equality Strategy (UCGES) 2020-2024, the gender pay gap in the European Union was 15.7%, while the employment rate difference was 11.6% in 2020 (Hartlapp et al., 2021). Even though women perform a chunk of the world’s drudgery, they do not reap the direct benefits of their efforts, as many would expect. This phenomenon is attributed to gender-based discrimination. Similarly, employment disparities persist in both developed and developing countries. Women in the labour market are generally undervalued, as evidenced by differences in labour force participation, pay, job types, and positions (Naami, 2015).
As governments worldwide continue to struggle with gender-based discrimination, a problem that has stifled the world’s growth for millennia, the situation in Africa has worsened (Ellerby, 2017). Thus, Africa has a worse position than other parts of the world. Gender discrimination in Africa is a complex issue requiring diverse, methodical solutions. Gender-based discrimination is still common across the continent, from household gender roles through workplace gender roles to adult life; the continent has had its share of the problem (Fraser et al., 2015). Ghana, hailed as Sub-Saharan Africa’s shining example of democracy, also has its fair share of incidents of gender-based discrimination. It is interesting, however, to note that in most cases, females suffer gender-based discrimination more than their male counterparts. According to data provided by the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), a statutory body that is responsible for conducting the nation’s Population and Housing Census, there were 15,631,579 females and 15,200,440 males during the 2021 Population and Housing Census (PHC) (Ghana Statistical Service, 2022). These statistics show 437,139 more women than men in the country, or 2.8 per cent of the overall population (Ghana Statistical Service, 2022). Despite constituting the majority of the people in the country, females suffer more from gender-based discrimination.
Despite ongoing efforts by several governments and civil society organizations over the years to reduce the threat of gender-based discrimination and increase women’s representation in decision-making processes, this problem continues to plague many female public sector employees in Ghana. According to data from the Ghana Statistical Service, while the employed male population in Ghana was 7.2 million in 2022, the employed female population was marginally lower, at 6.3 million (Ghana Statistical Service, 2022).
Again, studies have revealed that at least one woman in every three has been discriminated against, coerced into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime. Gender-based discrimination is widely observed as a significant public health issue and a violation of human rights (Akhmedshina, 2020; Ghana Statistical Service, 2022). Prejudice towards women because of their gender has increased in the Northern Region’s Savelugu Municipality (Abdul-Razak, Prince, & Eliasu, 2014). Gender-based discrimination, like any form of hostility against women, impedes the growth of women, organizations, and the country (London et al., 2012). At a time when nations worldwide strive to give both genders equal decision-making and employment opportunities, this problem is still shattering the confidence of the female gender in the Savelugu Municipality. Gender inequality dampens the spirit and morale of young women in the municipality. Over the years, the number of female teachers in the Ghana Education Service within the Savelugu municipality has reflected this malady. Data from the Education Management Information Service from the municipal education directorate in the 2021/2022 academic year revealed 368 male and 148 female teachers.
The presence of women in decision-making processes at every given company increases the productivity and effectiveness of its employees (Rao & Tilt, 2016). As a result, including females in leadership positions in the Ghana Education Service will aid in developing the service and the confidence of female teachers and young girls in the municipality. Female teachers in school leadership positions are widely seen as role models for young girls. However, data from the Educational Management Information System (EMIS) in the Savelugu Municipal Education Directorate revealed that more than half of the teachers in the Ghana Education Service within the municipality are males. As a result, more males are considered for positions like head teachers and School Improvement Support Officers (SISOs) than females. Males are often favoured over females for positions ranging from senior officers in the Municipal Education Directorate to classroom teachers because they constitute the majority of the teachers in the municipality.
Goal 5 of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals emphasizes ending all discrimination against women and young girls (Esquivel, 2016). This seeks to ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of the decision-making processes in political, economic, and public life (Ademe & Singh, 2015). This will ensure a level playing field for both genders to thrive. As a signatory to the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals, Ghana must offer a conducive environment for both genders, especially females, to fully express themselves and be considered in the decision-making processes in the community. Similarly, the Labour Act of Ghana, Act 651, stipulates that the employee has additional responsibilities besides those of the employer. Workers’ rights under the law include the right to work in safe, sanitary conditions, the right to equal pay for equal work performed without discrimination, the right to paid time off, the right to form or join a trade union, the right to receive job-related information, as well as the right to training and retraining to improve skills (Anku-Tsede & Deffor, 2014). The National Labour Commission (NLC), mandated by law to ensure the complete application of the Labour Act of Ghana, has also not implemented the Labour Act. This gives more room for the perpetrators of gender-based discrimination in the country to continue their discrimination against women. It becomes clear that the critical challenge in advancing gender equality in the workplace is not the lack of relevant laws but rather the lack of effective implementation of these laws, inadequate monitoring and application of sanctions in cases of poor compliance or none (Nomadolo, 2021).
To put the issue into context, gender-based discrimination begins in the home when young girls are forbidden from performing specific household tasks reserved exclusively for boys. Only domestic functions that do not require much physical effort, such as cooking, sweeping, caring for children, and cleaning dishes and clothes, are appropriate for girls, as practiced in most cultures worldwide. On the other hand, boys are assigned tasks that require much energy, so they feel superior to their female counterparts even at a young age (Ademe & Singh, 2015). Boys are also considered educationally fit and are thus continuously enrolled in schools, whereas their female counterparts are mostly confined to the kitchen and at home to care for children. The definition and establishment of sex equality in politics, the economy, personal relationships, and society are the objectives of feminism. Feminists argue that women are equal to or even superior to males, contrary to some people’s belief that women are inherently inferior (Jaggar, 2013). Giving all genders equal social, political, and economic rights is the main objective of feminism. Feminism seeks, through a range of sociopolitical groups and ideologies, to define and establish the sexes’ political, economic, personal, and social equality (Jaggar, 2013). Feminism argues that women are subjected to unequal treatment in civilizations where male opinion is valued above female view (Bartlett, 2018). This can be improved in several ways, including but not limited to battling gender stereotypes and improving women’s opportunities and outcomes in the workplace in the Savelugu Municipality.
Previous studies focusing on challenges of women in educational leadership positions and promoting gender equity in school leadership appointments, respectively, have discovered that certain teachers in the Ghana Education Service do not provide female heads with the neccessary collaboration due to their gender (Djan & Gordon, 2020; Abonyi et al., 2022). This phenomenon causes challenges for female head teachers in the discharge of their duties. Even though some studies on gender-based discrimination have been carried out in various regions and districts across the country, it seems that such a study has not been conducted in the Northern Region, especially in the Savelugu Municipality. This study, therefore, aims to assess the influence of gender-based discrimination on organizational development and how it affects organizational development from the standpoint of female teachers working in the Ghana Education Service within the Savelugu Municipality of the Northern Region.
2. Research Questions
1) What factors account for the gender inequalities at the Savelugu Education Directorate?
2) What are the perspectives of female teachers on how gender inequality influences the development of the Savelugu Education Directorate?
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Research Philosophy
The study’s conceptual foundation was the interpretivism paradigm of how knowledge is received. The interpretative paradigm is associated with subjectivist epistemology and the realism school of thought. Interpretivism is a study paradigm in the social sciences that maintains that reality is subjective and constructed by humans (Scotland, 2012). The researchers relied on interpretivism for the study because it aimed to explore the lived experiences of female teachers on how gender-based discrimination impacts organizational development and its implications for training and development. Interpretivism, rooted in idealistic philosophy, has been used to group several philosophical systems, including social constructivism, phenomenology, and hermeneutics (Hiller, 2016). In interpretive approaches, interviews and other sense-based data collection methods are used. This fitted perfectly into the researchers’ data collection instrument for the study. The researchers employed a semi-structured interview as the data collection instrument for the study.
3.2. Research Design
The design of the study is phenomenology. Phenomenological design is a qualitative research method that aids in describing a person’s life experiences (Williams, 2021). It is an effective tool for understanding subjective experience and people’s behaviours and intentions, shattering previous beliefs and upending conventional wisdom. The primary purpose of phenomenology is to investigate the lived experiences of people (Bevan, 2014). It focuses on people’s reactions to a phenomenon and looks into what they went through. Phenomenology helps researchers to understand the relevance of people’s genuine experiences. The phenomenological method focuses on the phenomena that have touched a person (Finlay, 2012). It draws attention to the details and pinpoints a phenomenon experienced by a particular person in a specific circumstance. Phenomenology is a common approach in social and health sciences qualitative research. It could aid in developing new hypotheses, changing laws, or a different course of action.
Phenomenological research design is beneficial for subjects where the researchers want to delve deeply into the audience’s ideas, feelings, and experiences (Williams, 2021). It’s an excellent way to learn more about the audience, raise awareness of the topic under investigation, and develop new hypotheses about audience experience in a preset, controlled context. Phenomenological research is widely utilized in sociology by researchers who wish to understand better the populations they are investigating (Jackson, Vaughan, & Brown, 2018). Phenomenology helps us understand the relevance of people’s genuine experiences. Phenomenological research examines people’s experiences with a phenomenon and what they went through (Jackson, Vaughan, & Brown, 2018).
3.3. Population and Sample Size of the Study
The study’s population comprised all female public and private basic school teachers in the Savelugu Municipality. While the total population of the study comprised 164 female teachers, including 54 Kindergarten (KG) teachers, 70 Primary school teachers, and 40 Junior High School teachers, the sample size of 25 female teachers was recruited for the study. The researchers targeted female teachers because they formed the basis for this study. The purposive sampling procedure was adopted to select the sample size because the researchers sought for persons who could provide relevant information for the study (Palinkas et al., 2015).
3.4. Theoretical Saturation
The researchers used 25 respondents in this study as the sample size for data collection after new data collected did not add any new information to the data collected in this study. Saturation in qualitative studies refers to that point in data collection where new data collected does not add new information to the data collected already (Mwita, 2022). The researchers employed thematic analysis to analyze the data in this study. The researchers ensured that the data collected was triangulated among the researchers to ensure reliability and minimize interpretive bias in this study. Thematic analysis involves systematically identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within a dataset. These patterns represent recurring ideas, topics, or meanings that are significant to the research question (Lochmiller, 2021).
The study employed a semi-structured interview as a data collection instrument which is susceptible to the researcher’s biases and interpretations. This may have an impact on the validity and trustworthiness of the study’s conclusions. The study explored only the perspectives of female teachers, which would have limited the understanding of gender-based discrimination in organizational development from the perspectives of male teachers.
3.5. Data Collection Instrument
The instrument for this study was a self-constructed semi-structured interview guide. The semi-structured interview guide consisted of 15 open-ended questions divided into three sections. Section I sought to collect data on the demographic characteristics of respondents. The demographic characteristics of respondents included age, number of years in the service, marital status, name of the school, name of the circuit, and the level the respondent is teaching. Section II gathered data on female teachers’ experience of gender-based discrimination in the Ghana Education Service. Section III also collected data on female teachers’ perspectives on how gender-based discrimination impacts the development of the Savelugu Education Directorate and the training and development programmes for teachers and educational managers to curb gender-based discrimination. A semi-structured interview is a data collection approach that involves asking participants open-ended questions and following up with follow-up probing questions to further investigate their responses and the main issue (Alshenqeeti, 2014). Semi-structured, structured, and unstructured interviews benefit from the advantages of both research methodologies (Ruslin, Mashuri, Rasak, Alhabsyi, & Syam, 2022). Respondents have more opportunities to express themselves because the questions are loosely arranged.
In this study, the researchers obtained the needed information during the interview by recording participants using an electronic device (phone) and note-taking. Multiple recording devices were used in this study in that they complemented one another in data recording by the researchers. Brenner (2012), posited that the techniques used to record interviews for documentation and later analysis include audiotape recording, videotape recording, note-taking, and remembering.
3.6. Data Collection Procedure
The researchers took an introduction letter from the University for Development Studies’ Education Department to collect data. The introductory letter was delivered to the Municipal Director of Education.
The University for Development Studies’ institutional review board gave approval to the researchers to commence the study, after they were satisfied by the research topic and the consent forms presented by the researchers. The researchers also took an introductory letter from the Municipal Director of Education to head teachers to seek permission to engage female teachers as respondents for the study. Three research assistants were trained to enable the researchers to administer both the pre-test and post-test data and assist the researchers in conducting the study. Ethical considerations were adhered to. This includes gaining access, informed consent, confidentiality and anonymity. Obtaining access is the process of entering a particular group or organization and ensuring that those associated with it would take part as respondents. It involves finding strategies that work to reassure gatekeepers, communicate the importance of the research project, and provide some sort of benefit to either the gatekeeper or the organization. Informed consent is crucial when doing qualitative research on human subjects because it ensures that the subjects’ rights are respected and that they are aware of the study’s key findings. Obtaining informed consent often entails obtaining a written consent form that includes all required consent elements and distributing it to prospective participants. Confidentiality in qualitative research refers to the obligation of researchers to prevent unapproved access to participants’ data. It comprises safeguarding participant identities and personal information against unauthorized access or disclosure. Qualitative researchers confront unique challenges when it comes to maintaining respondent confidentiality while offering detailed, nuanced portrayals of social lives. Anonymity in qualitative research refers to protecting participants’ identity by removing any identifying information from the data and reports, such as names, locations, and other characteristics. This suggests that the initiative is having trouble linking the identity of participants to particular answers.
The researchers pre-tested the data collection instrument with five respondents selected from the various circuits in the directorate. The researchers and research assistants collected the pre-test data. After the pre-test, there were two weeks before the post-test was conducted. This ensured that respondents did not replicate the same responses for the interview questions. The same instrument was re-administered to the same respondents for the post-test. The post-test data was collected by the researchers and research assistants.
Table 1. Distribution of respondents by age.
Age bracket |
Frequency |
Percentage (%) |
25 - 30 years |
7 |
28 |
31 - 40 years |
11 |
44 |
41 - 50 years |
5 |
20 |
51+ |
2 |
8 |
Total |
25 |
100 |
Source: Field Data (2025).
As shown in Table 1, female teachers within the 25 - 30 years bracket, consisting of 28% of respondents in the study took part in this study. Also, 44% of the respondents, representing 11 respondents in the study fell between the ages of 31 - 40 years. This age bracket had the highest number of respondents in the study. In addition. In addition, 5 respondents, representing 20% of respondents in the study fell between the ages of 41 - 50 years. Lastly, 2 respondents, representing 8% of respondents in the study were 51+ years. This represented the least number of respondents in this study.
4. Results of the Study
What factors account for the gender inequalities at the Savelugu Education Directorate?
Thematic analysis was used to analyze this research question, and the responses are illustrated as follows:
During the interview, respondents emphasized patriarchy concerning female teachers’ advancement in promotions and appointments to higher positions at the Savelugu Municipality Education Directorate. According to one respondent, there have been some changes in harmful socio-cultural behaviours in recent years. According to the respondent, some traditions, such as early marriage, still prevent girls from receiving an education in the municipality, which impacts the number of female teachers in the Savelugu Education Directorate. Respondent one had this to say:
“I know of one parent in our community who removed his daughter from secondary school. His daughter was in form two when she was forced to discontinue her studies due to her parent’s desire to find a marriage price. His daughter has given birth to two children”. (Cynthia, Interview, April, 2023).
A female teacher stated in an interview that sexual harassment against female teachers is one of the contributory factors to gender inequality in the Savelugu Education Directorate. My teaching life has been challenging since I refused to fall to the sexual advances from my headmaster and some senior officers at the Savelugu Education Directorate. She had this to say:
“Teacher (x) intended to initiate a sexual relationship with me, but I discovered it is difficult to engage in a sexual relationship with my colleague teacher, especially in the same school”. (Akos, Interview, April, 2023).
Another female teacher interviewed mentioned the sexual relationship between officers in higher positions and female teachers in the Savelugu Education Directorate, stating that:
“My headmaster’s observation of a problematic situation in our school this year surprised me. They claimed that municipal education directorate officials had sexual relationships with female teachers at the school. He claims this occasionally undermines his authority in administration because these female teachers believe he cannot call them out when they misbehave. Female teachers have difficulty managing their school duties in this situation”. (Bertha, Interview, April, 2023).
Similarly, another female teacher identified the low representation of female teachers in the directorate as contributing to gender inequality in the municipality. She added that the low numbers that they have as teachers do not make their male counterparts accord them the respect that they deserve. She noted that:
“Because female teachers are not many in this municipality, our voices are not heard. Look at the male teachers because of the numbers. They have a powerful voice compared to us, the female teachers”. (Akushika, Interview, April, 2023).
Again, another respondent noted that male teachers occupy most positions in the Ghana Education Service. She added that it gave an undue advantage to male teachers to look down upon female teachers. The respondent had this to say:
“Looking at the GES, most of the positions are occupied by male teachers, which give them the advantage because the positions they occupy discriminate against female teachers. If we were to have more female teachers also occupying these positions, I think the discrimination we suffer in the service would be reduced”. (Emefa, Interview, April, 2023).
Similarly, another respondent observed that female teachers within the Ghana Education Service face discrimination, which can be attributed to the lack of respect that males have for their female counterparts. She noted that:
“Gender inequality in the Ghana Education Service is a serious problem that needs to be addressed. I think that males, in general, see themselves to be superior to females. Even in our homes, these things do happen. Males, in general, have little or no respect at all for females. In this service, it is the same thing. However, one will have thought that because male teachers are educated and civilized, they will have been doing otherwise, but, unfortunately, the story is the same with them too”. (Delight, Interview, April, 2023).
Another respondent acknowledged that gender-based discrimination in the Ghana Education Service results from the absence of gender-responsive policies and sanctions on the perpetrators of gender-based discrimination in the Ghana Education Service. She observed that:
“For me, gender inequality in the Ghana Education Service is common because of the lack of policies and sanctions to deal with the perpetrators of gender inequality. Even if there are policies on it, most teachers are not aware of these policies. If every teacher knows that strict sanctions are associated with this problem, I think the rate at which people perpetuate this problem will be drastically reduced”. (Jane, Interview, April, 2023).
Similarly, another respondent observed that the lack of female role models in leadership positions within the Ghana Education Service makes it difficult for women to envision themselves in these roles. They argued that more efforts are needed to promote female representation in leadership positions and to encourage female students to pursue leadership roles in the future. The respondent noted that if female teachers are not considered for higher positions in the service, it will discourage young and upcoming female teachers, as they will not have role models they can aspire to be like in the future.
She said:
“One of the reasons we female teachers suffer gender inequality in the municipality is the lack of female role models in positions within the service whom we can aspire to be like in the future. Most of the leadership positions in the service are dominated by males. There appears to be a deliberate attempt to empower male teachers’ more than female teachers. More efforts should be made to empower female teachers like our male counterparts”. (Doreen, Interview, April, 2023).
Again, one respondent indicated that the Ghana Education Service lacks adequate gender-responsive policies to address gender inequality. She argued that there is a need for gender-responsive policies that seek to address discrimination and bias in the Ghana Education Service.
She remarked that:
“There is no gender-responsive policies in the Ghana Education Service to address the issue of gender inequality. The GES does not have such policies that promote female participation and promotion to higher ranks in the service. Suppose the service wants to promote female participation. In that case, there is the need to develop and adopt gender-responsive policies to ensure that female teachers are considered for higher positions in the Ghana Education Service”. (Bushira, Interview, April, 2023).
Another respondent indicated that gender inequality in the Ghana Education Service persists because of a lack of political will to address the issue. She noted that policymakers prioritize other issues over gender equality or that there is resistance to change from those who benefit from the current system, where male teachers dominate the general administration in the Ghana Education Service.
She said:
“The lack of political will by the management of the Ghana Education Service and successive governments over the years in combating gender inequality has been the major cause of gender inequality in the Ghana Education Service. I want to believe that even if there are policies to combat gender inequality in the sector, the management of the Ghana Education Service and successive governments over the years have not implemented these policies to curb the problem”. (Rafia, Interview, April 2023).
Furthermore, another respondent argued that gender inequality in the Ghana Education Service cannot be addressed without considering other forms of inequality, such as race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. She suggested that efforts to promote gender equality must also consider the unique experiences of marginalized groups and address the multiple forms of discrimination they may face in society.
She remarked that:
“Gender-based discrimination in the Ghana Education Service is a complex problem that needs an equally complex approach. You will realize that to fight and eliminate discrimination and other biases in the Ghana Education Service. We must also look at eliminating other forms of discrimination in our society. Gender-based discrimination is not only peculiar to the Ghana Education Service. Other forms of discrimination exist, such as ethnicity, race, and socioeconomic status among the two dominant genders in society. So, to tackle one and leave the rest will mean that the problem of gender inequality in our society will not be fully tackled, as it may manifest in different forms”. (Nimatu, Interview, April, 2023).
Another respondent observed during the interview that gender inequality was rife in the Ghana Education Service in the municipality and blamed the lack of law enforcement on the problem in the country over the years. She remarked that:
“Gender inequality in the service is common, especially in this municipality. I do not neccessarily have to experience it to know that it was happening in the Ghana Education Service. Over the years, even female teachers in the municipality were not given more chances like their male counterparts concerning leadership positions in the service. Just recently, a female has risen through the ranks to be one of the frontline officers at the Municipal Education Directorate. It has always been males over the years. So, gender inequality is common in the municipality”. (Gladys, Interview, April, 2023).
Again, another respondent noted that gender inequality persists because of a lack of awareness and education among educators, policymakers, and the general public. She said most of those who perpetuate gender-based discrimination are educated in society, but not those who are not. She suggested that more efforts are needed to raise awareness about the significance of gender equality and to promote gender-sensitive education policies and practices.
She said:
“The perpetrators of gender inequality in society are not only the uneducated but the educated as well. Look, are there illiterates in the GES as we speak? The answer is no, but why are we still battling the problem after so many years? Our leaders need to raise more awareness about the problem; it is not only peculiar to illiterates alone, but educated people are also engaged in it”. (Amina, Interview, April, 2023).
Again, another respondent during the interview remarked that gender inequality in the Ghana Education Service was caused by girls in some Ghanaian societies, especially in rural communities that lacked access to education. She added that girls’ lack of access to education was why more male teachers were in the service than female teachers. She believed this was why male teachers in the service were capitalizing on their numbers to perpetuate gender inequality against their female counterparts.
She had this to say:
“I think that girls’ lack of access to education in some communities, especially in rural communities across the country, is one of the contributory factors of gender inequality in the Ghana Education Service. This is because, once young girls are condemned to the kitchen and the home to take charge of children and perform other household chores, fewer girls will undergo the required professional training to become teachers in the long run. This gives an undue advantage to our male teachers, who will have more numbers. They then capitalize on their numbers to molest female teachers. Increasing girls’ access to education in their early years will mean more of our young girls becoming teachers”. (Ayisha, Interview, April, 2023).
Furthermore, another respondent during the interview revealed that gender inequality in the Ghana Education Service was common because teachers have limited access to professional development opportunities. The respondent noted that female teachers mostly feel they have limited access to professional development opportunities, preventing them from acquiring the skills and knowledge needed to advance in their careers. She added that male teachers are usually considered for professional training opportunities than female teachers, which she noted does not give equal opportunities for both genders to advance in their chosen careers.
She remarked that:
“In most cases, I have seen that male teachers are considered for professional training opportunities than female teachers. It may be because they carry the largest numbers in the service, but no matter how you look at it, there is still some discrimination toward female teachers. Headteachers in the school will normally opt for male teachers to attend these professional training programmes, than their female counterparts”. (Adiza, Interview, April, 2023).
What are the perspectives of female teachers on how gender inequality influences the development of the Savelugu Education Directorate?
Thematic analysis was used to analyze this research question, and the responses are illustrated as follows:
During the interview, one of the respondents revealed that gender inequality in the Ghana Education Service undermines the overall development of the service, mainly because female teachers play a significant role in the school concerning the support they offer to adolescent girls in educational institutions. She elaborated that:
“Discrimination against female teachers in the GES tends to slow down the development of the GES. They especially consider female teachers’ significant role in supporting girls in our schools. If an adolescent girl in the school is in her menstruation, she may not feel comfortable confiding in the male and female teachers in the school. So, suppose educational authorities discriminate against female teachers in the school. In that case, this can potentially make female teachers reluctant to carry out their duties in the school, including the care and support they offer to adolescent girls. When this happens, it will limit girls’ access to education during their menstruations”. (Memunatu, Interview, April, 2023).
Similarly, another respondent asserted that female teachers are essential stakeholders in the educational sector and should not be discriminated against at any given time. She mentioned that:
“Female teachers in schools are important stakeholders who should be given the attention they deserve to contribute their quota to the development of the Ghana Education Service. Female teachers are like any other teacher who equally deserves the respect and attention that their male counterparts in the service receive. Discrimination against human beings should not be tolerated anywhere, not in our educational institutions. All teachers, irrespective of their gender, are role models to their students; female teachers should not be treated like they are not human beings. Once female teachers feel part of the GES, it will propel the growth and development of the service in the long run. In situations where female teachers feel discriminated, they will also fold their arms, which will affect the development of the GES in our district”. (Daavi, Interview, April, 2023).
Another respondent believed that all teachers, irrespective of gender, have the same role in developing the Ghana Education Service. She noted that:
“No matter one’s gender, we all have the same role in ensuring that the Ghana Education Service achieves its goals and the expected development. So, I think no one should be maltreated in discharging their duties”. (Adishe, Interview, April, 2023).
Similarly, another respondent observed that gender inequality is detrimental to the development of every institution or nation. She noted that:
“Gender inequality is a social problem that tends to undermine the development of any given nation or institution. For nations to come out with policies to end, it tells you that it does promote national development. Gender inequality does not allow individuals to exhibit or show the stuff they are made of, which will help their personal development and the overall development of their societies. Discrimination against female teachers or any given group of people in society means that the group will not be empowered to contribute to their institutions’ development. Generally, gender inequality is bad and must be stopped, no matter the cost”. (Dove, Interview, April, 2023).
Another interviewee said that the development of any given institution or nation was heavily reliant on how the institution ensures inclusivity in the workplace. She added that discriminating against female teachers in the Savelugu municipality means that they will not be in a position to fully contribute to the development of education in the municipality, which could have a long-term impact on the nation’s development. She noted that:
“Discrimination against female teachers in the municipality means that they will not be willing to contribute their quota to the development of education in the municipality. This could have a long-term impact on the development of our children and, by extension, the nation at large”. (Maa, Interview, April 2023).
Similarly, another respondent noted that gender inequality against women kills the spirits of female teachers and does not motivate female teachers to work hard in training the next generation of future leaders for the country. She had this to say:
“Gender inequality against female teachers does not give confidence to female teachers to work hard in achieving organizational goals. Both male and female teachers are mandated to help groom the next generation. However, gender inequality against female teachers over the years has dampened the spirits of female teachers in training young children in schools”. (Saa, Interview, April 2023).
Another respondent during the interview noted that gender-based discrimination in the Ghana Education Service was rampant and that it was time the neccessary stakeholders in the sector began to punish the perpetrators of the act. She remarked that:
“Gender-based discrimination in the GES is common because duty bearers in society, especially the law enforcement agencies and all other neccessary stakeholders in the education service, have relaxed on the job. It is high time that all the neccessary stakeholders in education begin to punish the perpetrators of all forms of violence against female teachers in the service”. (Dalis, Interview, April, 2023).
Similarly, another respondent observed during the interview that the issue of gender inequality did not help harness the potential of both genders in the development of the country’s education sector. She said:
“To help develop the country, we must begin to change how female teachers are treated and harness the potential of both genders in the country to propel national development. Look, the GES has remained stagnant in the last couple of decades because authorities in the sector have downplayed the potential of female teachers in the development of the education sector in Ghana. Our leaders should accept that there is a problem with how female teachers are treated, and let’s collaborate to develop the sector together”. (Philomena, Interview, April, 2023).
Another respondent observed during the interview that women in educational leadership positions mostly believe they do not need to support the society they work in because they are not established by it. This is a result of how the Ghana Education Service frustrates the work of female teachers in the service. She remarked that:
“Even today, some people believe that women lack the qualifications needed to compete effectively with men for higher career positions in academia. As a result, such a set of views downplays the significance of women’s liberation initiatives. As a result, women in some cultures have struggled to persuade males that they can lead. In contrast to their male counterparts, who are quickly welcomed by the community, they typically work harder to be recognized and established in their jobs. This ultimately impacts the development of the Ghana Education Service negatively”. (Falis, Interview, April, 2023).
Furthermore, another respondent noted that many female teachers lose the motivation to succeed due to the multiple hurdles they experience on the path to success as a manager or leader. She remarked that:
“Men and women dislike working for women because they believe that once a woman assumes managerial responsibilities, she loses all of her femininity. It is considered that if a woman manager is forceful, she is aggressive, tough, and unfeminine; if she is humorous, she is lenient; and if she cries, she is emotional. This belief alone cannot help us bring the best out of our female teachers in developing the Ghana Education Service”. (Akuma, Interview, April, 2023).
Discussion of Findings
What factors account for the gender inequalities at the Savelugu Education Directorate?
The study’s findings revealed that the low representation of female teachers in the Ghana Education Service in the Savelugu municipality was the leading cause of gender inequality. For example, data on teachers in the municipality revealed that there were more male teachers than their female counterparts. During the interview, most respondents observed that the low number of female teachers in the service within the municipality, especially at the Junior High School level, was the main reason female teachers were being discriminated against. Some respondents shared their experiences on how the low representation of female teachers in the municipality fuels the discrimination they receive from their male counterparts. This finding aligns with Beg et al. (2021), who argued that the low representation of female teachers in educational institutions is a significant factor in discriminating against female teachers. This finding also supports the findings of Baten et al. (2021), who found that the low representation of female teachers in the teaching profession contributes to discrimination against them. This finding implies that the Ministry of Education and the Ghana Education Service should recruit more female teachers to join the service. This will help promote equality and inclusion.
Furthermore, the lack of female teachers in managerial positions was another major cause of gender inequality in the Ghana Education Service. Data gathered on the field revealed more male headteachers in the municipality than female headteachers. Many female teachers acknowledged these impacts how issues about female teachers in the municipality are addressed. Most study respondents observed that female teachers are not well represented at the decision-making level in the service, so their concerns are mainly discussed from the school level to the directorate. This result supports the views of Beg et al. (2021); Carli & Eagly (2007); Castaño et al. (2019), who argued that the relationship between a leader’s personality and gender stereotype presents concerns. They postulated that female teachers are denied leadership positions in the workplace, even if they have the requisite skills and qualifications. This finding implies that the Ghana Education Service should appoint female teachers to managerial positions.
In addition, the study’s findings revealed that most victims of gender inequality in the Ghana Education Service do not care to report incidences of abuse to the right quarters for redress because they lack confidence in the authorities at the Municipal Education Directorate and for fear of victimization. In other words, female teachers who experience any abuse do not have the belief in the structures of the Ghana Education Service to help them fight the problem. So, in most cases, these female teachers do not even report the incident to those in authority. This result is supported by the views of Camey et al. (2020), who found that most victims of gender-based discrimination do not report the abuse against them because they lack confidence to report the abuse or do not know who to report to. Additionally, this finding aligns with the findings of Khethiwe (2023), who found that in most cases, victims of gender-based discrimination in educational settings fail to report to the necessary authorities for redress. This finding implies that the Ghana Education Service should build the service staff’s capacity to trust the structures within the service that handle discrimination issues. This will help boost the confidence of the service staff to report cases of inequality for redress.
Similarly, respondents indicated during the interview that unequal access to resources and opportunities in the Ghana Education Service was another cause of gender inequality in the municipality. Interviewees noted that male teachers at the Savelugu Education Directorate are given preferential treatment concerning access to resources and opportunities, including training, professional development, and leadership positions. This is attributed to the low representation of female teachers in the service and the deliberate attempt to empower more male teachers than female teachers in the municipality. Thus, respondents during the interview believed that if female teachers were to have the same numbers as their male counterparts in the service, they would equally receive the same treatment for opportunities in the service. This finding is supported by the views of Beg et al. (2021), who found that the low number of female teachers in the Ghana Education Service was limiting opportunities for female teachers. This finding also corroborates the findings of Meza-Mejia et al. (2023), who found that male teachers were treated differently from their female counterparts at the basic school level. Their study also found that males occupied managerial positions in organizations due to the limited number of females.
Again, respondents attributed gender stereotyping to the factors causing gender-based discrimination in the Ghana Education Service. During the interview, interviewees shared instances where female employees are subjected to gender-based discrimination and stereotypes. For example, in most schools within the municipality, female teachers are assumed to be less competent and productive than their male colleagues, and their roles are limited to certain areas considered “women’s work”. Thus, in most cases, female teachers are assigned tasks that educational authorities think are befitting women, not men. Some respondents shared how they were given to teach certain subjects in their schools that school authorities believe can be handled by female teachers and not their male counterparts. Respondents observed that the teaching of Mathematics and the Sciences, for instance, was preserved for male teachers, while the social sciences were preserved for female teachers in most schools across the municipality. This finding is supported by the views of Carli & Eagly (2007), who argued that leadership attributes are frequently associated with stereotypically masculine characteristics like dominance, aggression, and ambition. They also found that stereotypical attributes such as softness, friendliness, and being too soft to handle demanding tasks are associated with females in the workplace. This finding also aligns with the findings of Blithe and Elliott (2020), who found that females are seen to be soft and not aggressive at the workplace. This finding implies that the Ghana Education Service needs to organize in-service training programmes to sensitize the service staff. This will help in solving the problem of gender stereotyping amongst the staff.
Also, the study’s findings revealed biases in hiring and promotion practices in the Ghana Education Service as one of the causes of gender inequality in the municipality. Interviewees shared with the researchers the existence of gender biases in recruiting and promoting employees at the Savelugu Education Directorate. For instance, respondents noted that male recruits are often given preferential treatment over equally or more qualified female candidates concerning appointments and promotions into higher ranks in the service in the municipality. Respondents revealed that before the introduction of the promotion exams by the Ghana Education Service, most female teachers were made to fail their promotion interviews. Respondents indicated that the introduction of the aptitude test had reduced the bias against female teachers concerning promotions into higher ranks in the service but had not eliminated the problem, as they believed that most male teachers were still being promoted. This finding is supported by the views of Osei-Assibey (2014); Das & Kotikula (2019); de Paul Kanwetuu et al. (2020), who found that there was evidence of bias in the hiring and promotion practices in the Ghana Education Service, which has the potential to worsen gender inequality in the service. This finding implies that the Ghana Education Service should reserve some quota for females when recruiting staff. The Ghana Education Service can also reserve some slots for promotions into higher offices for female teachers. This will ensure that female teachers do not feel discriminated against in hiring and promotions into the service.
Furthermore, the study’s findings revealed that cultural and social norms significantly perpetuate gender inequality in the Savelugu education directorate. Female teachers reported that they face pressure to conform to traditional gender roles and expectations, which limits their opportunities and career advancement. Thus, society expects female teachers to abide by certain norms like keeping the house and caring for the family, which ultimately affects their output at the workplace. Some respondents reported that society gives more attention and recognition to males than females, providing room for gender inequality against female teachers. This finding is supported by Tuwor and Sossou (2008), who found that women’s subordination is common in most traditional Ghanaians societies, where women continue to have a lesser standing due to social, religious, and cultural practices. This finding implies that the Ghana Education Service should empower women to occupy leadership positions. This will help clarify the myth that women are not fit for societal leadership positions.
Finally, the study revealed that female teachers lack mentorship and role models who can support and guide them in their careers. Female teachers feel there are few mentors in the education sector whom they can admire and learn from. In other words, female teachers in the Savelugu municipality do not have role models to inspire them to rise through the ranks and occupy higher service positions. Data from the municipal directorate revealed that the frontline officers are primarily men, leaving female teachers with little or no influence. This finding is supported by Djan & Gordon (2020); Ohemeng & Adusah-Karikari (2015), who found that even though there are more female teachers in the Ghana Education Service, few hold managerial positions. This finding implies that the Ghana Education Service should appoint more female teachers into leadership positions to serve as mentors and role models to other female teachers as well as young girls in educational institutions.
What are the perspectives of female teachers on how gender inequality influences the development of the Savelugu Education Directorate?
Findings from the study revealed that almost all the respondents believe that gender inequality in the Ghana Education Service stifles organizational development. Most respondents observed that the service in the municipality has not been well positioned to train and groom quality human resources over the years to drive the development of the municipality and the nation at large because of the presence of gender inequality within the Ghana Education Service. This finding is consistent with the views of Baliamoune-Lutz & McGillivray (2015), who argued that gender inequality negatively influences organizational development. This finding implies that the Ghana Education Service should sensitize its staff to appreciate the negative impact of gender inequality on the development of the service.
Equally, most respondents observed that gender inequality devastatingly impacts its victims. Most respondents noted that female teachers who have faced discrimination within the service are not motivated to give their best to drive organizational development. This result is supported by Vuckovic, Alvater, Sekei, & Kristina, (2017) and Haworth & Hughes (2012), who opined that many survivors of gender inequality experience more significant stress, difficulty sleeping, less motivation and performance, which hurts employees’ happiness and organizational development. The implication of this finding is that the Ghana Education Service should sensitize its staff to understand the health impact of gender inequality on victims. This will help reduce the incidences of gender inequality in the service.
Furthermore, the study revealed that some victims of gender inequality have had to go for counselling to help them overcome the trauma associated with gender inequality. Respondents noted the efficiency of such female teachers over the years, which ultimately negatively impacted the development of the service. This result is supported by the views of Major, Brenda, O’Brien, McCoy & Shannon (2007), who asserted that gender inequality could lead to self-harm, social isolation, depression, and suicide attempts by victims. This finding implies that the Ghana Education Service should create and resource guidance and counselling units in all educational institutions to offer counselling services to victims of gender inequality.
Again, respondents also shared their perspectives on cultural attitudes toward gender roles. Interviewees discussed the impact of cultural attitudes towards gender roles on gender inequalities at the Savelugu Education Directorate. For instance, during the interview, respondents noted that some traditional gender roles may limit women’s opportunities for career advancement or require them to balance their work with domestic responsibilities. They observed that female children’s orientation at home indicates that women are not decisive for challenging tasks and can only serve as housewives, taking care of the children and preparing food for the family. Respondents also indicated that male children are often trained to be aggressive and decisive in handling challenging tasks, preparing them for leadership roles in the future while condemning the female to the kitchen. This finding supports the views of Oduro & Macbeath, (2003); Klenke, 2004; Dery (2018) and Gyan & Mfoafo-M’Carthy (2022), who found that men do not often feel comfortable assigning females to leadership positions in organizations because of cultural reasons. This finding implies that the Ghana Education Service should sensitize the service staff to understand that both male and female teachers can perform the same task.
Also, respondents shared their thoughts on the impact of gender-based discrimination on the development of the Savelugu Education Directorate. During the interview, respondents shared their perspectives on how gender inequality influences the development of the Savelugu Education Directorate. Respondents noted that gender inequality in the Ghana Education Service limits the organization’s diversity of perspectives and ideas, hindering innovation and progress. This result is consistent with the views of Morrison (2005), who asserted that organizational commitment and development are the relative intensity of employees’ recognition and affiliation with their employer. This finding implies that the Ghana Education Service should organize in-service training programmes for staff to understand the need for diversity and how it promotes organizational development.
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
In conclusion, the study on female teachers’ perspectives on gender-based discrimination in organizational development in the Savelugu Municipality revealed substantial challenges faced by women in educational institutions. The research indicated that female teachers, predominantly in basic education institutions, experience gender discrimination, sexual harassment, and prejudices related to gender. The study also underscored the prevalence of discrimination against women impacting their career advancement and work environment. The findings emphasized the need for interventions to address discrimination and create inclusive environments in educational institutions. It was found that gender-based discrimination undermines the overall development of the Ghana Education Service. The study further revealed that female teachers’ low representation in the Ghana Education Service directly impacted their progression into higher ranks in the service. In light of these findings, it is imperative that the Ghana Education Service should endeavour to reserve a quota for female teachers in the Ghana Education Service in order to increase the number of female teachers in the Ghana Education Service.
Approaches such as promoting gender equality, enhancing awareness, and implementing support structures are crucial to fight biases and ensure a safe workplace for female teachers. Furthermore, there is a call for cultural changes within organizations to address male dominated power structures and encourage diversity. The study underscored the importance of understanding the intersectionality of discrimination based on gender, ethnicity and other factors. Efforts to ease prejudices and discrimination in educational settings are vital for fostering a more equitable and inclusive environment for female teachers.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to female teachers for their participation in the study. We would also like to thank the Savelugu Municipal Education Directorate and all headteachers for allowing their teachers to participate in the study.