The Democratic Republic of Congo, in the Light of the Energy Transition: A Prey State between the USA and China? ()
1. Introduction
The current world is working with the aim of protecting itself against any eventuality that could create a threat against planet earth. It is in particular because of this caution that the energy transition is starting to gain more and more momentum on the international scene.
1) Objectives of the Energy Transition
Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions: One of the main objectives is to reduce CO2 emissions and other greenhouse gases to combat climate change (Jancovici, 2013).
Energy Security: Reduce dependence on energy imports and non-renewable sources to ensure greater energy security.
Sustainable Development: Promote economic growth that takes into account environmental limits and the needs of future generations.
2) Renewable Energy Sources
Solar: Using photovoltaic panels to convert sunlight into electricity.
Wind power: Production of electricity from the power of the wind using wind turbines.
Hydroelectric: Generating electricity using the force of moving water, usually through dams.
Biomass: Use of organic materials (agricultural waste, wood, etc.) to produce energy.
Geothermal energy: Exploitation of heat from the Earth’s interior to produce electricity or for heating.
3) Energy Efficiency
Building Improvements: Insulation, double-glazed windows, and more efficient heating and cooling systems (Bihouix, 2014).
Energy Technologies: Use of devices and equipment that consume less energy to provide the same level of service.
Energy Management: Implementation of strategies to optimize energy use at all levels, from homes to businesses.
4) Challenges of the Energy Transition
Initial Costs: Initial investments in renewable infrastructure can be high, although costs decrease over time.
Energy Storage: Renewable sources like solar and wind are intermittent, so energy storage becomes crucial.
Infrastructure: Modernize electricity networks and infrastructure to integrate new energy sources.
Social Acceptability: The transition may encounter resistance, particularly from industries dependent on fossil fuels.
5) Policies and Regulations
Governments play a key role in defining policies, providing subsidies and implementing regulations to support the energy transition. International agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, set global targets for reducing emissions (Edenhofer, 2011).
6) Initiatives and Innovations
Advanced Technologies: Research and development of new technologies such as next-generation batteries, green hydrogen, and carbon capture and storage.
Advances in Research: Innovations in energy efficiency, materials, and intelligent energy management systems.
The energy transition is a journey towards a more sustainable and environmentally friendly future, involving changes at many levels (Muller, 2013).
2. Electric Cars
Why should we talk about it?
It is currently impossible to talk about the energy transition without alluding to electric cars for which lithium and cobalt are used, mainly, as raw materials in the manufacture of electric car batteries, and the cradle of these two raw materials is the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Reduction of CO2 Emissions: Electric Vehicles do not produce direct emissions of CO2 or local pollutants when driving, unlike gasoline or diesel vehicles. However, it is important to consider the entire life cycle, including the production of electricity to recharge them and the manufacturing of the batteries (Warner, 2011).
Energy Efficiency: Electric motors are generally more efficient than internal combustion engines. They convert a greater proportion of energy into motion, resulting in better overall energy efficiency (Ajanovic, 2015).
Reduction of Air Pollution: EVs help reduce air pollution, including nitrogen oxides (NOx) and fine particulate matter, which are public health concerns in urban areas.
Types of Electric Cars
Battery Electric (BEV): Operates only with a rechargeable battery. Example: Tesla Model 3, Nissan Leaf.
Plug-in Hybrid (PHEV): Combines an internal combustion engine with a rechargeable battery. They can operate in all-electric mode over a certain distance. Example: Toyota Prius Prime.
Non-Rechargeable Hybrid (HEV): Use an internal combustion engine and an electric motor, but the battery is charged by the combustion engine and regenerative braking, not an external source. Example: Toyota Prius.
Charging Infrastructure
Home Charging Stations: EVs can be recharged at home with suitable charging stations, generally installed in garages.
Public Charging Stations: Located in public places, they allow EVs to be recharged on the go. They vary in terms of charging speed, from slow charging stations to fast and ultra-fast charging stations.
Fast Charging: Fast charging stations, often located on highways, allow EVs to be charged much more quickly, in 20 to 30 minutes for an 80% charge.
Challenges and Limitations
Battery Range: Although EV ranges have increased significantly, they can still be a concern for some drivers, especially on long-distance journeys.
Charging Time: Charging EVs takes longer than refueling a gasoline vehicle. The development of fast charging technologies is helping to alleviate this problem.
Initial Cost: EVs may have a higher purchase cost than thermal vehicles, although this cost is falling with increased production and government subsidies.
Environmental Impact of Battery Manufacturing:
Battery manufacturing can have a significant environmental impact, particularly with respect to material extraction and waste treatment. Efforts are underway to improve the durability and recycling of batteries.
Benefits and Outlook
Technological Innovation: The EV sector is driving innovation in battery technologies, energy management systems, and charging infrastructure (Muller, 2013).
Policy and Regulation: Many governments offer incentives for EV purchases, such as subsidies, tax breaks, and road allowances.
Integration into Energy Grids:
EVs can play a role in managing electricity grids, including serving as energy storage (via V2G, or “Vehicle-to-Grid” technology) to help balance electricity demand and supply.
Methodology
As a methodology, in this work we have opted for comparative geopolitical analysis. It allows us to compare the actions, strategies, and interests of different geopolitical actors (in this case, the United States and China) in relation to a specific country, here the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The energy transition in the DRC, in a global context marked by tensions between economic superpowers, is becoming a strategic battleground between the United States and China (Lacoste, 1976).
These two major powers are competing for access to the DRC’s natural resources, particularly cobalt and copper, which are essential for energy transition technologies such as electric batteries.
The DRC possesses strategic natural resources, particularly critical minerals such as cobalt, copper, and lithium, which are essential to the global energy transition. These metals are used in electric vehicle batteries, solar panels, and other green technologies. This makes the DRC a key player in the global energy transition, but also a focal point of geopolitical competition between the United States and China (Giblin, 2010).
Regarding natural resources, the DRC is the world’s largest producer of cobalt, a mineral essential for lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles. In addition, the country has significant reserves of copper and other strategic minerals.
Regarding the energy transition, the DRC also seeks to develop its domestic energy sector, particularly through hydropower, as it has enormous potential with the Congo River. This development is crucial to supporting the energy transition nationally while meeting the growing needs of the population.
The DRC finds itself in a situation where it must juggle the divergent interests of two superpowers. The DRC’s political and economic choices will be crucial to its energy future. Indeed, a strategic collaboration with China could accelerate infrastructure development and the exploitation of natural resources, but it could also lead to increased dependence on China. On the other hand, a partnership with the United States could offer advantages in terms of governance and integration into global energy transition initiatives, but at a potentially slower pace and with stricter reform requirements.
Comparative geopolitical analysis reveals that the DRC is at the heart of a competition between the United States and China for control of strategic resources needed for the global energy transition. The DRC must carefully navigate the gap between these two powers, seeking to maximize its advantages while minimizing the risks associated with excessive dependence on either party. The choices made by the Congolese government will have profound consequences for its economic and energy development, as well as its geopolitical positioning in the years to come (Foucher, 1991).
Analysis from the point of view of the theory of the curse of natural resources
The Democratic Republic of Congo, richly endowed with strategic natural resources such as cobalt, copper, coltan, and lithium, embodies the paradox of the “resource curse”. This phenomenon refers to the tendency of resource-rich countries to experience slower economic growth, fragile governance, and persistent conflict. In the DRC, this curse manifests itself in massive mining operations that rarely benefit the local population. Revenues generated by resource exploitation are often diverted, fueling corruption and political instability.
The global energy transition, driven by green technologies, has intensified international interest in Congolese minerals. China, for example, controls a significant share of global production of lithium-ion batteries, essential for electric vehicles and renewable energy. The United States, seeking to secure supplies of critical minerals, has recently negotiated with controversial actors such as Dan Gertler, an Israeli mining magnate in the DRC, to gain access to these resources. These agreements raise concerns about transparency and the impact on the country’s sustainable development (African Desk of Strategic Analysis, 2023).
Thus, the DRC finds itself at the crossroads of geopolitical competition between major powers, notably the United States and China, which are seeking to secure access to its strategic resources. Without strengthened governance, local resource processing, and economic diversification, the DRC risks remaining trapped by the resource curse, where its natural wealth becomes a burden rather than a lever for development (Bazilian, Morgan & Brew, Gregory, 2022).
3. Power Balance between the USA and China in the Energy Transition
The balance of power between the United States and China in the context of the energy transition is a crucial aspect of contemporary geopolitical dynamics. This question is linked to economic, technological, environmental and strategic issues.
China has become the world leader in renewable energy production, particularly in the solar, wind, and battery sectors. It produces about 70% of the world’s solar panels and dominates the supply chain for lithium-ion batteries, which are essential for electric vehicles (EVs). It has invested heavily in green technologies, with supportive government policies to develop these industries. The country aims to become the world’s leading clean technology superpower (Yergin, 2020).
The United States remains a major player in technological innovation, with strong expertise in research and development (R&D) of advanced energy technologies, such as electric vehicles, carbon capture technologies, and hydrogen.
Under the Biden administration, the United States has stepped up efforts to catch up on renewable energy production, including through grant programs and tax credits to spur green energy innovation (U.S. Department of State, 2021).
Geopolitics of the Energy Transition:
China controls a large portion of the global supply chains for rare metals, such as lithium, cobalt, and rare earths, which are essential for green energy technologies. This control gives China a major strategic advantage in the global energy transition.
The United States, for its part, is seeking to diversify its sources of supply for critical minerals and strengthen its alliances with other producing countries, such as Australia and Canada, to reduce its dependence on China.
The two countries are also competing internationally to be seen as leaders in combating climate change. China has announced ambitious targets to achieve carbon neutrality by 2060, while the United States aims for carbon neutrality by 2050. However, this competition is also marked by tensions over issues such as trade, intellectual property rights, and environmental standards (Hafner & Tagliapietra, 2020).
It is worth noting that China is using its Belt and Road Initiative to establish economic and strategic partnerships in resource-rich regions, such as Africa, where the DRC is located. This initiative strengthens China’s economic and political presence in these regions, which is perceived as a threat by the United States and other Western countries.
It invests in key infrastructure, such as roads, ports, and energy networks in resource-producing countries. This gives it direct and strategic access to raw materials and creates economic dependencies that can influence local policies.
Impact on the Global Economy:
The energy transition in China and the United States is transforming global industries, impacting international trade, employment, and investment flows. For example, the race to electric vehicles is redefining the global automobile industry.
China is seeking to export its green technologies around the world, increasing its economic and political influence, particularly in developing countries.
Geopolitical tensions between the two powers increase the risk of economic decoupling, particularly in the area of green technologies. The two countries could create distinct technology ecosystems, with separate standards, supply chains and markets, which could fragment the global economy.
Environmental and climatic consequences
Cooperation and rivalry:
While rivalry is dominant, there are areas where cooperation is possible, such as in the fight against climate change. The success of the global energy transition will depend largely on the ability of the United States and China to work together on common goals, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Victor, Jaffe, & Hayes, 2006).
However, tensions between these two powers can also slow global progress on the energy transition if they hinder international cooperation or cause economic conflicts that undermine the collective effort to combat climate change.
The competition in the energy transition between the two countries influences the energy policies of other nations, which must choose between aligning their policies with one or the other power, or seeking to navigate between the two to maximize their advantages (Victor, 2011).
The European Union, for example, seeks to maintain its strategic independence while strengthening its own capabilities in green technologies, so as not to be too dependent on China or the United States.
Let it be noted that the balance of power between the United States and China in the energy transition is characterized by intense competition for technological, economic, and geopolitical leadership. This rivalry is shaping not only the energy strategies of both countries, but also the global dynamics of the transition to a decarbonized economy. As both nations strive to dominate the technologies of the future, their rivalry could both accelerate innovations in renewable energy and create tensions that could slow the global cooperation needed to address the climate crisis (Pascual, 2015).
It has been traditionally proven that globalization is mainly intended to reduce the gaps between entities and create interdependence in order to further eliminate one-way dependencies, moreover, the situation relating to the energy transition, an incredible key in maintaining economic development, proves to us that the giants participating in this sector are rather at war with each other, although without lethal weapons, but they are ready to do anything to maintain leadership, because the future of the world is notably supported by the evolution linked to the energy transition (Scholten et al., 2018).
4. Comparison of US-China Mining Investment
in the DRC
4.1. China
China has become a dominant player in the Congolese mining sector, notably through strategic agreements such as the Sicomines project signed in 2007. This agreement gave Chinese companies access to copper and cobalt deposits in exchange for infrastructure investments, including road construction and power plants. The total value of this agreement is estimated at approximately $3 billion. (Bankable Africa, 2024).
In 2016, the China Molybdenum Company (CMOC) acquired the Tenke Fungurume mine, one of the world’s largest copper and cobalt mines, for $2.65 billion. This acquisition was facilitated by $1.59 billion in financing from Chinese state-owned banks. In 2024, CMOC generated $7.05 billion in revenues in the DRC, representing nearly 40% of the Congolese national budget for 2024. This performance was supported by the sale of 689,521 tonnes of copper and 108,892 tonnes of cobalt. The DRC has become CMOC’s primary mining site, contributing 77.5% of its direct mining production (Reuters, 2025).
In addition, CMOC also owns the Kisanfu mine, which was acquired for $550 million in 2020, with an additional investment of $1.8 billion planned for the development of the site. A portion of this mine was sold to Contemporary Amperex Technology (CATL), a Chinese battery manufacturer, further integrating the battery technology supply chain (Wikipedia. CMOC Group, 2023).
4.2. USA
The United States, although present in the DRC, has been less active in the mining sector in recent years. However, recent initiatives suggest a renewed interest. In 2023, the United States began negotiations with the DRC to secure access to critical resources such as cobalt and copper, in exchange for security assistance (Varun Sivaram, 2018).
This initiative aims to counter China’s growing influence in the region. However, humanitarian organizations have expressed concerns about the potential impact on child labor and working conditions in artisanal mines, emphasizing the need for a strict regulatory framework to prevent exploitation (Khan, 2025).
Furthermore, the American company Freeport-McMoRan sold its majority stake in the Tenke Fungurume mine to CMOC in 2016, marking a strategic withdrawal from the Congolese mining sector. This decision was influenced by internal financial difficulties and allowed China to strengthen its dominant position in the exploitation of mineral resources in the DRC. Let us recall that the DRC is on a new path with the USA in the context of mining by American companies in order to obtain peace and security from the Americans, especially in the eastern part of the country which is seriously attacked by Rwanda which passes through the rebel groups M23 and Alliance Fleuve Congo (AFC). This, unfortunately, is not a solution, especially since American interests are not necessarily Congolese interests.
5. The Fate of the DRC, As Prey between the USA and China in the Energy Transition
The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) plays a critical role in the global energy transition due to its vast reserves of critical minerals, including cobalt, lithium, and copper, which are essential for green technologies such as electric vehicle batteries and energy storage. In this context, the DRC is indeed seen as an arena of intense competition between the United States and China (Global Witness, 2020).
Strategic importance of the DRC in the energy transition
Abundant mineral resources:
The DRC has considerable reserves of cobalt, a metal essential for the manufacture of batteries, including those used in electric vehicles (EVs) and energy storage systems. Approximately 70% of the world’s cobalt reserves are found in the DRC, a crucial element for renewable energy and the transition to cleaner technologies (Bannon & Collier, 2003).
Hydropower:
The country has exceptional hydropower potential thanks to the Congo River and its many tributaries. This potential could make the DRC a key player in the production of clean and renewable energy, both for its own consumption and for export to other regions, particularly Central Africa.
Biodiversity and forests:
Is home to one of the largest expanses of tropical forests in the world, playing a vital role in regulating the global climate. The sustainable management of these forests could be an asset in the fight against climate change, and their preservation is essential for the global energy transition.
Potential for regional cooperation:
The DRC, with its natural resources, can play a key role in the development of regional energy infrastructure, facilitating the creation of interconnected electricity networks in Africa. This could enable a smoother energy transition for the continent, diversifying energy sources while reducing dependence on fossil fuels (International Energy Agency, 2021).
Economic and industrial development:
The exploitation of these natural resources offers a unique opportunity for the DRC to boost its economic development. If the country manages to manage its resources sustainably and ethically, this could contribute to job creation, the eradication of energy poverty, and the diversification of its economy.
6. Fragile Position of the DRC
It is legitimate to consider that the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) finds itself in a vulnerable position, almost like “prey” in the competition between China and the United States, especially with regard to the exploitation of its vast mineral resources essential to the global energy transition.
China has established a significant economic and political presence in Africa, particularly in the DRC, where it has invested heavily in infrastructure, mining, and natural resource projects. Beijing has established partnerships in the form of loans and cooperation agreements to access these resources. In return, China helps develop infrastructure such as roads, railways, and energy facilities. However, these agreements are often criticized for their lack of transparency and their limited impact on local development in the long term (Jean-Pierre Bat, 2019).
The United States also has major interests in the DRC, as it seeks to secure alternative sources of materials for the energy transition, in order to reduce its dependence on China for strategic resources. Washington has, for example, implemented policies aimed at diversifying mineral supply chains, and has expressed concerns about working conditions and environmental impact in cobalt mines in the DRC (Eric Nyambal, 2021).
Although the DRC has abundant natural resources, it remains one of the poorest countries in the world in terms of human development. Its economy is still largely dependent on mining, without the benefits of this wealth being fully redistributed to the population. Lack of infrastructure, corruption, political instability and internal and external conflicts limit the effectiveness of the management of these resources and their impact on national development (World Bank, 2020).
As a result, the DRC often finds itself in a weak position vis-à-vis foreign powers, which have the means to take advantage of its natural resources without this leading to real development for the Congolese population. Major global players, such as China and the United States, exert pressure to access these resources, sometimes to the detriment of the DRC’s sovereignty (van der Ploeg, 2011).
These two powers are in the race related to the energy transition and sometimes all means or blows can be used in order to achieve their objectives in connection with being a leader in socio-economic and industrial development.
This war has certainly started for several years, however it is the DRC that suffers the most, because it has all the minerals related to the energy transition, but it benefits from almost nothing, compared to what China and the USA gain.
In the same vein, several multinational companies from these two countries are in the maneuver in order to take raw materials in the DRC for the realization of their projects in the energy transition sector (Global Status Report, 2022).
The greatest misfortune is to note that the DRC receives, a posteriori, the same products (minerals) already manufactured and at generally exorbitant prices (Ex: an electric car in China or the USA costs almost half as much as in the Democratic Republic of Congo) (Gallagher, 2014).
Most of the proposals go in the direction of taking raw materials in their raw state, however the ideal would have been to propose the industrialization of the DRC and following its geographical position in the heart of Africa, this would give a good boost to development in the African continent (Chambers & Bouya, 2019).
7. Solutions and Recommendations
The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is indeed in a strategic position due to its abundant natural resources, notably cobalt, a key metal for the global energy transition. The dynamics between the United States and China around the DRC are complex, due to geopolitical, economic and environmental issues. Furthermore, we propose some possible solutions and recommendations to enable the DRC to no longer remain a prey between these two powers, but to play an efficient role in the well-being of its populations and its economic development.
1) Diversification of Partnerships
Avoid Unilateral Dependence: The DRC should seek to diversify its economic and diplomatic partnerships to avoid becoming a mere “prey” between China and the United States. This could include collaborations with the European Union, neighboring African countries, as well as investments from countries not involved in this rivalry.
Strategic Partnerships with Technology Companies: Beyond mineral resources, the DRC could explore partnerships in the fields of green energy (solar, wind, hydrogen), by partnering with companies and governments that invest in renewable energy.
2) Strengthening Governance and Institutional Capacity
Strengthening negotiation skills: To maximize economic benefits, the DRC must develop its negotiation skills with foreign stakeholders. Training for diplomats and government officials would be essential to ensure that mining and energy contracts truly benefit the country.
Fighting corruption: Transparency and proper management of natural resources must be central to government priorities. This would strengthen the DRC’s credibility with foreign investors and prevent its resources from being exploited in an unsustainable or unfair manner.
The plan is to establish a mechanism based on the principle of “no competence without ethics”. The goal is to combine both elements to eradicate both mediocrity and corruption.
3) Sustainable Mining Resources
Promoting responsible mining: The DRC must ensure that the exploitation of its natural resources, particularly cobalt and copper, is carried out responsibly and sustainably, taking into account environmental and social standards. This includes protecting workers’ rights, reducing environmental impact, and managing risks associated with illegal mining.
Enhancing local value chains: Rather than solely exporting raw materials, the DRC could encourage local industrialization to process some of these resources locally, thus creating added value, jobs, and local expertise. This would significantly address the poverty that affects the majority of the population.
4) Energy Strategy and Green Transitions
Developing green energy: The DRC has immense hydroelectric potential (particularly with the Grand Inga project), but it could also explore other renewable energy sources (solar, wind). A clear energy transition policy, geared toward clean energy, could make the DRC a major player in providing green energy to the region.
Building infrastructure to support the energy transition: This includes investments in energy storage infrastructure, electricity distribution networks, and energy efficiency technologies.
5) Training and Local Skills Development
Strengthening education and training: For the DRC to capitalize on its geopolitical position, it is crucial to develop local skills in key sectors such as mining technology, engineering, and renewable energy. This would contribute to the growth of high-value-added sectors.
Creating innovation and research centers: Encouraging local innovation and research in clean technologies and mining could enable the DRC to become a leader in certain technological sectors.
6) Regulation and Management of International Relations
Strengthen environmental regulations and policies: The DRC could leverage its “prey” status by imposing strict requirements on foreign companies to comply with high environmental and social standards. It could thus attract investments that meet these criteria while protecting its own interests.
Boost relations with the UN and international institutions: By working with international organizations, the DRC could assert its interests and actively participate in the development of global policies on the energy transition.
7) Communication and Diplomacy
Use of proactive diplomacy: The DRC must leverage its strategic position to play a key role in international discussions on the energy transition. For example, it could advocate for a sustainable and equitable development model at global climate forums, such as the COP.
Global awareness: The DRC can also make its voice heard by highlighting the importance of its natural resources to the global energy transition, while advocating for equitable sharing of benefits.
8. Conclusion
As part of the global energy transition, the DRC is indeed at the heart of a competition between the United States and China. The country is in a position where it can be considered “prey” due to the covetousness of its resources. However, with effective governance and well-defined strategies, the DRC can transform this situation into an opportunity for sustainable development, balancing relations with these powers to maximize economic and social benefits for its population.
This will be achieved through the principles of good governance, particularly through these combined words that we call “no competence without ethics”. It is, therefore, possible for the DRC to take off and take a path of development through the energy transition, because it has immeasurable assets. A policy focused on the general interest, highlighting ethics and competence, while also prioritizing training, would be of immeasurable advantage to the DRC, which lives in an unspeakable paradox: full of natural resources, but inhabited by great poverty. It would be wise for quality human resources to be placed at the forefront in order to find suitable solutions.
The Democratic Republic of Congo must work differently in order to take full advantage of its strategic minerals. From the point of view of commercial markets, the situation concerning the LOBITO corridor has recently become factual, it is a corridor connecting the southern regions of the DRC and the northwest of Zambia via Angola, with the main objective of the passage of raw materials. However, the DRC holds the largest share of said materials, so strategic intelligence is needed to avoid losing out. As for the crisis situation, in the eastern part of the DRC, with the Rwandan aggression, the DRC is on the one hand in agreement with the USA for an agreement on minerals in exchange for peace and security, on the other hand, via the USA, the DRC is on a declaration of the agreement of principles with Rwanda in order to seek peace and stability. All these facts will be observed and analyzed, because as long as the DRC does not have the possibility of fully benefiting from its resources for its development, all steps in one direction or another will be in vain.