1. Introduction
Management is frequently discussed, generally accepted, but seldom critiqued within society. These confluences produce a paradox in which few would existentially commit themselves to the persistent subjugation that they willfully accept professionally as part of their daily work routine. This dynamic is a consequence of management as an ideology and organizational power (Jackson, 2022). Management, as an ideological praxis, is accepted more than it is either understood or resisted (Clegg et al., 2019; Harley & Fleming, 2021; Tourish, 2020). The understanding of management held by the fragmented-social collective does not tend to extend far beyond its common definition as the process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling an organization’s resources to effectively achieve specific goals and objectives efficiently (Giglioni & Bedeian, 2019; Griffin, 2022; Kotter, 2019). A fragmented-social collective refers to any group characterized by diverse and disconnected social ties, in which individuals maintain their identities and affiliations but lack cohesive interaction and shared purpose. Fragmentation arises from disconnected social ties where individuals maintain their distinct identities and affiliations without forming strong, unified bonds with others in the group. In organizational contexts, this phenomenon presents significant challenges for management. Employees may feel isolated or disconnected from the collective goals of the organization, leading to difficulties in fostering collaboration, engagement, and solidarity. The fragmented-social collective underscores the complexity of achieving authentic engagement within organizations where a common vision is not shared or where interpersonal connections are weak. An understanding of the concept of the fragmented-social collective is crucial for management because it highlights the challenges of fostering collaboration and unity in organizations where employees may feel isolated, necessitating targeted strategies to enhance authentic engagement and solidarity. Within the commonly accepted definition of management there are aspects that are open to critique. Many of these have been explored within Critical Management Studies (Lê, 2024; Spicer & Alvesson, 2024; Thayf et al., 2021). Despite these critiques, acceptance of management persists as a dominant paradigm within society (O’Shea, 2019; Pirson, 2019). A summary review of previous research on management provides insight into this phenomenon.
Aspects of management that are frequently critiqued include a lack of communication with workers (Kalogiannidis, 2020; Vanderhooft, 2021), leadership (Franken & Plimmer, 2019; Milosevic et al., 2020), decision-making (Abubakar et al., 2019; Joseph & Gaba, 2020), employee engagement (Nienaber & Martins, 2020; Saks, 2022), diversity and inclusion (Fujimoto & Uddin, 2020; Lindberg, 2018), and ethics (McManus, 2018; Sang & Kirui, 2019). Whereas these critiques are informative, they leave management itself intact. Levying a critique against management itself is difficult due to asymmetric power dynamics, cultural norms, and institutional support (Berti & Simpson, 2021; Schnatterly et al., 2018). Issues associated with the inadequacies of the current understanding and definition of management are a popular as well as an academic concern. In an article for Forbes, Denning (2023) explained that “each definition of management has its proponents. Each definition arguably adds to our understanding of management. Yet all fall short of offering a coherent picture of how the subject of management fits together as a whole. As a result, management has yet to become a coherent intellectual discipline” (para. 4). From that summary review, a discernable gap is revealed in terms of research directed toward an understanding management as an ideological praxis based on a textual analysis of its definitions. This study aims to address that gap in knowledge.
This study is an examination of the comprehensive list of sentences containing the phrase management is found in the top 100 most-relevant, peer-reviewed, full-text, PDF articles, written in English, contained in EBSCOhost Academic Search Complete. These statements were analyzed in terms of content, sentiment, and theme. The results of this study suggest that management is a multifaceted phenomenon. Management was found to be frequently referenced (n = 189) but defined only sporadically (n = 61). Six management domains were identified: a) management, b) human resource management, c) knowledge management, d) organizational management, e) project management, and f) other. The sentiments of these six domains were universally positive, which could betray a wide-spread acceptance of management as an ideology within society. In terms of their respected thematic content, management, and organization were frequently identified across the domains. The emancipatory theme of diversity appeared only within the human resource management domain. A deeper examination into the praxis of management offered by this study holds the potential to reveal compelling points of solidarity, action, and resistance.
Since writing structure is influenced by intent (Reboulet & Jackson, 2021), this paper conforms to a general research format. Following this introduction (Section 1), there is a survey of literature (Section 2), which contains an overview of existent research on management ideology (Section 2.1), definition theory (Section 2.2), and definitions of management (Section 2.3). After the survey of literature, the research method (Section 3) and results (Section 4) are presented. To focus attention and enhance subsequent utilization, the results section is subdivided into subordinate sections on the statements related to management (Section 4.1), human resource management (Section 4.2), knowledge management (Section 4.3), organizational management (Section 4.4), project management (Section 4.5), and other (Section 4.6). The paper concludes with a review of the limitations of the study (Section 5) and a conclusion (Section 6).
2. Survey of Literature
Previous research is useful for contextualization, avoiding duplication, and identifying gaps requiring additional study (Cooper et al., 2018; Dodgson, 2021; Lim et al., 2022; Snyder, 2019). Given the focus of this study, a review of prior research on management ideology (Section 2.1), definition theory (Section 2.2), and definitions of management (Section 2.3) was considered essential. From this review, the need for this textual analysis study focused on the ideological praxis of management was established.
2.1. Management Ideology
Management has been examined from a multitude of perspectives including organizational behavior (Kamran et al., 2023; Purwanto et al., 2021), strategy (Fuertes et al., 2020; Samimi et al., 2022), operations (Buer et al., 2021; Hilton et al., 2021), performance (Ardi et al., 2020; Gemeda & Lee, 2020), and corporate social responsibility (Javed et al., 2020; Zaman et al., 2022). Each of these areas is important and adds something to one’s understanding of management. However important these areas are, examining them individually or collectively does little to make explicit the ideology residing at the core of management praxis. Jackson (2022) explained, “ideology haunts management” (p. 1), and that management as an ideology is “enacted by individuals who do so consciously in terms of structure and function, but unwittingly in terms of ideology” (p. 5). To understand the ideological praxis of management, it is essential to deconstruct it as an ideology.
Linking management and ideology is not new (Deem & Brehony, 2005; Jackson, 2022; Klikauer, 2019). The benefit of understanding the ideological praxis of management is not derived from its novelty but from its emancipatory potential. Examining management as an ideology allows one to understand the implicit systems of ideas that drive organizational behavior, policy, and worker subjugation. Doing so effectively requires an interrogation of how management can be considered an ideology. Deem and Brehony explained that management can be seen as ideological to “the extent to which such an ideology serves the needs and interests of managers” (p. 218). It is important to note that the ideological praxis of management is designed to serve the interests of managers, and by extension executives, but not those of workers. The interest of executives and management are those of the capitalist class not the working class (Jackson & Heath, 2024).
Capitalism requires the extraction of surplus value from workers (Marx, 1992; Braverman, 1974). Ideology plays a part of getting workers to willfully conform to their own subjugation. Klikauer explained, “there has been a longstanding and even intimate relationship between ideology and managerial activities” (p. 422), and that to sustain capitalism, management and ideology are “purpose directed and functional” (p. 425). Contributing to the robustness of the ideological praxis of management is that it simultaneously contains political and traditional elements that are reinforcing and compensating. As Suzuki (2005) explained, whereas “the rise and decline of a management ideology can be strongly influenced by its political context…management ideology can retain certain traditional elements even after radical political changes” (p. 72). Confronting the ideological praxis of management, and overcoming its inherent subjugating consequences requires confronting the political and traditional elements of society. Confounding this problem is the close linkage between management and leadership.
Research by De Paula Xavier Vilela and Neto (2017) found that leadership, which is closely related with management, can be considered an ideology. A problem with confronting and transcending the ideological praxis of management is that it requires solidarity (Jackson, 2022), and dominant, social constructions of leadership focus on the individual (Alajmi, 2022; Gaiter, 2013). In short, what is needed to overcome the ideological praxis of management is precisely what is obfuscated by it. This results in a paradox. To the degree that the ideological praxis of management is successful, it can’t be overcome; to the degree that the ideological praxis of management is unsuccessful, it doesn’t need to be transcended. Only by critically assessing management as an ideology, can one identify and transcend the implicit constraints it imposes, and foster an environment in which authenticity and autonomy can flourish.
Ideological commitments residing in the core of management praxis can be revealed through an analysis of its definitions. Prior to examining prior research on definitions of management (Section 2.3), it is beneficial to explore research related to definition theory (Section 2.2).
2.2. Definition Theory
Within the fields of communications and semantics, definitions are considered essential for establishing clarity and meaning between individuals and groups (Evans & Lucas, 2023; Paruzel-Czachura, 2023; Woods et al., 2022). Definitions also provide a framework for interpretation (Haig, 2020; Petts, 2020; Vlad 2020) and enable the exchange of ideas (Kühne et al., 2015; Thomas et al., 2017). In addition to these functions, definitions also perform the function of standardization (Stanković et al., 2022; Tamura, 2013). This process of standardization of meaning can have ideological implications (Bryce, 2013; Idrus et al., 2022). It is the research exploring linkages between definitions and ideological praxis, that is particularly useful here.
Definitions play an important role in the language that shapes and constrains one’s thoughts and understandings. One is only partially aware of the extent to which language influences cognition and action. Hummel (2008) explained that “not only our conscious reason but our unconscious is structured by the language we are born into…We as human subjects are an effect of our language relationships” (p. 100). Consequently, the definitions one holds limit our understandings of self and potentialities. No definition can ever be complete. Johnson (1946) described that as terms are defined “we leave out certain details…We do not say all about anything. There are no exhaustible subjects!” (p. 128). The selection to include some things and exclude others is at least potentially ideological. In his analysis of ideology, Mannheim (1949) explained how definitions imply a “stabilization oriented along the lines of collective activity,” that a definition “emphasizes and stabilizes that aspect of things which is relevant to activity and covers up…the perpetually fluid process underlying all things,” and that “every concept represents a sort of taboo against other possible sources of meaning” (p. 20). Ideology is as much an act of obfuscation as it is one of explication.
Ideologies are frequently conveyed through language, its definitions, and its deployment through communication. This can be examined by both what people say and what they mean by what they say. As noted by Van Dijk (2013), “ideologies are largely acquired, expressed, and reproduced by discourse,” with discourses being defined as the “social practices” through which “ideologies are acquired, used, and spread” (p. 176). In examining definitions for their ideological core, it is important to attune to the text, subtext, connotation, denotation, and sublimation. For Freeden (2000), “to analyze an ideology…is to categorize, elucidate and decode the ways in which collectivities in fact think…and unintentionally express the social patterns which that kind of thinking has developed” (p. 304). This is consequential. As Carmines and D’Amico (2015) explained “ideology in the public is constrained to how people think of themselves and society. This ideology includes ideas about who should rule, moral codes, and fundamental personal values as well as attitudes toward equality, freedom, and democracy” (p. 208). Transcending ideology, if possible, can only be achieved through conscious awareness. Examining definitions for their ideological praxis is an essential part of gaining that awareness.
Among the concerns associated with definition theory are ambiguity (Chandra et al., 2003; Yu et al., 2022a), context dependence (Jenkins et al., 2019; Nico et al., 2024), evolving language (Ellison & Reinöhl, 2024; Tacchella et al., 2020), and reductionism (Antić, 2021; Christmas & Khanlou, 2019). The propagation of ideology can be facilitated by reductionist definitions which oversimplify complex concepts to the point that all nuance and contradiction are lost. Such an oversimplification is observable when it comes to definitions of management (Section 2.3).
2.3. Definitions of Management
The ideological praxis of management exceeds its definition. Management is more than it portends. This excess of management beyond its semantic boundaries reflects the social acceptance of its ideological praxis. Denning’s (2023) critique of the definition of management (Section 1) suggests that the issue is not simply an academic concern but a popular one as well. Whereas concern with management, its definition, and its implications for individual and collective action are shared among different parts of society, there is unique benefit from examining definitions of management from an academic perspective, as it allows for systematic analysis and critique. Academic concerns with the definition of management exist in terms of its ambiguity (Alvesson & Blom, 2022; George et al., 2023), the scope and boundaries of the discipline (Brendel et al., 2021; Jæger & Pedersen, 2020), its interdisciplinary nature (Danivska & Appel-Meulenbroek, 2021; Naderpajouh et al., 2020), its cultural contingency (Blader et al., 2020; Hadid & Al-Sayed, 2021), and difficulties associated with measurement and evaluation (Murphy, 2020; Sinambela et al., 2022). Examining a few definitions of management can help to illustrate these concerns.
Defining management is no easy task. In fact, in some respects the act of defining management forces one to simultaneously confront its inherent ambiguity and potential contradictions. Koontz (1961) acknowledged that “management has far from a standard meaning,” before then famously going on to define management as “getting things done through and with people” (p. 133). This definition makes explicit, at least obliquely, the manipulative potential of management. Management is likely best known in terms of its four functions. Schermerhorn (2011) defined management, as traditionally understood, as consisting of “the four functions of management…planning, organizing, leading, and controlling” (p. 16). These definitions, while common and revealing, are not the only ones available. Some definitions of management focus on its synthesizing quality. Magretta (2002), explained that management “rightly understood…is a liberal art, drawing freely from all the disciplines that help us make sense of ourselves and our world” (p. 3). Each of these definitions of management offers something, but not all, of what is packed into the term. In his groundbreaking book, The Nature of Managerial Work, Mintzberg (1980) explained, “although an enormous amount of material has been published on the manager’s job, we continue to know very little about it. Much of the literature is of little use, being merely endless repetition of the same vague statements” (p. 7). Later, Mintzberg (2009) asserted that “managing is neither a science nor a profession; it is a practice learned primarily through experience, and rooted in context” (p. 9). It is this contextual aspect of management that makes it so challenging to define and so amenable to critique.
Critiques associated with the definitions of management are not new (Koontz, 1961; Mintzberg, 1980). The persistence of such critiques suggests the inadequacy of definitions of management being offered for consumption. If management is an evolutionary discipline, part of the issue can be attributed to changes in the scope and content of management over time. Priest and Hallebone (2009) described that “the evolution of management thought and knowledge has not always displayed coherence” (p. 146). This lack of coherence makes it challenging to understand management as a discipline and as an ideological praxis. Further complicating the task, is the possibility that management itself is a social construction (Berger & Luckmann, 1967). As Alvesson and Deetz (2000) explained, management is a “social construction filled with history and political motives,” and that determining what management is “cannot be answered very well in the abstract” (p. 5). In addition to being a social construction, the political motives residing at the core of management as an ideological praxis contribute significantly to its persistent ambiguity. Further examination of the definitions, sentiments, and themes of management is needed to transcend its subjugating influence.
Based on this review of the existent research of management ideology (Section 2.1), definition theory (Section 2.2), and definitions of management (Sections 2.3), a discernable gap has been revealed in terms of research directed toward a textual analysis focused on understanding what management is, and making sense of management as an ideological praxis. This study aims to fill that gap in the existent research. The method used in this study is presented next (Section 3).
3. Method
Making sense of the ideological praxis of management benefits from the context provided by research. This study made use of the textual analysis technique of KWIC (Jockers, 2014) to examine sentence-level occurrences of statements including the phrase management is. Focusing exclusively on the sentences with the phrase management is allowed for the most direct, and least contentious, examination of how management is defined and understood in its essence, revealing the ideological underpinnings and inherent assumptions within these definitions. The selected approach, while potentially contentious, highlights static and identity-based aspects of management, as opposed to broader functional definitions which could emphasize more abstract actions and processes. By concentrating on the most direct definitional statements, one can more effectively critique and analyze the ideological praxis of management, uncovering how these definitions perpetuate certain power dynamics and cultural norms. A five-step process was used for article identification, and was like the one used by Troyer et al. (2024). The first step required logging in to EBSCOhost Academic Search Complete. The second step entailed selecting the search screening criteria to include only full text, peer-reviewed, PDF articles that were written in English. The third step was to search for the phrase organizational management. When the results were generated, the list of articles were then sorted by relevance to the search phrase. The last step was to select the top 100 most-relevant articles. The rationale for selecting 100 articles and using only EBSCOhost centers on achieving a balance between comprehensive coverage and focused analysis, while ensuring the quality and relevance of the sources. By choosing 100 articles, the study secures a robust sample size that captures a wide array of perspectives and definitions related to management. This number is substantial enough to identify patterns and variations in how management is conceptualized across different contexts and disciplines, providing a comprehensive overview without being overwhelming. Limiting the selection to 100 articles allows for a manageable scope that facilitates detailed textual analysis, including sentiment and thematic analysis. This depth is essential for exploring nuanced insights into the ideological praxis of management, enabling a thorough examination of each article’s content. EBSCOhost Academic Search Complete is a reputable academic database known for its extensive collection of peer-reviewed, full-text articles. Using this database ensures that the selected articles are of high scholarly quality, relevant, and credible, which is crucial for rigorous academic research. By focusing on articles from a single, comprehensive database, the research maintains consistency in the type of content analyzed, facilitating clearer comparisons and conclusions about management ideology. As such, the selected approach strategically balances the need for comprehensive data with practical constraints on research scope and resources, ensuring meaningful insights into the ideological dimensions of management while maintaining scholarly rigor. Whereas the number of articles was arbitrary, it was considered sufficient for providing sufficient variability to glimpse the possible effects of context (Reboulet & Jackson, 2021). The selection protocol used for article identification and selection is presented graphically as Figure 1.
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Figure 1. Data filtering process for article identification.
Once the top 100 organizational management articles from EBSCOhost Academic Search Complete were identified, using the data filtering process presented in Figure 1, each article was then searched for the phrase management is. The sentence for each identified occurrence of management is was transcribed into an Excel workbook containing four columns. The first column was for the number of a given occurrence of the phrase management is (e.g., 1, 2, …n). If the statement containing the phrase management is was determined to be definitional in terms of its content it as marked by an asterisk (i.e., “*”). The second column was for the document number, which based on the constraints adopted for this study could range from 1 to 100 inclusive. The third column was for the page number of the article on which a given phrase occurred. The last column was for the sentence containing the phrase management is. The Excel workbook was then loaded into RStudio for sentiment and thematic analysis.
The sentence-level data previously described were analyzed within the free, RStudio, software environment (Boehmke & Jackson, 2016), using the tidytext (Silge & Robinson, 2017) approach. Numerous R packages were used to conduct this analysis. Loading the Excel file into RStudio made use of the readxl (Wickham et al., 2023a) and xlsx (Dragulescu & Arendt, 2020) packages. The textual analysis was conducted using the dplyr (Wickham et al., 2023b), textdata (Hvitfeldt & Silge, 2024), tidyr (Wickham et al., 2024), tidytext (Robinson & Silge, 2024), tidyverse (Wickham, 2023a), and stringer (Wickham, 2023b) packages. Sentiment analysis was conducted using both the Bing and AFINN sentiment lexicons, included in the dplyr package (Wickham et al., 2023a). Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) was used for conducting the thematic analysis (Silge & Robinson, 2017) using the topicmodels (Grün & Hornik, 2024), pdftools (Ooms, 2024), and tm (Feinerer & Hornik, 2024) packages. The LDA topic modeling was constrained to four topics. By using fewer topics under LDA than the six groupings identified through the subject assessment, it was possible to derive the benefits of forcing a degree of coalescence among the subject themes while maintaining a degree of flexibility and variability among the categories. Assessing coherence scores was deemed unnecessary, in the context of this research, because the primary objective was to explore and map the diverse interpretations and definitions of management rather than to validate a specific thematic structure. By not focusing on coherence scores, the study could maintain an open-ended exploration that embraced the complexity and diversity inherent in management definitions, rather than being constrained by numerical measures of thematic consistency. In addition, these RStudio packages allowed for word and bigram frequency analyses, that were useful in providing additional context for interpretation of results. Subsequent validation of the results was considered unnecessary (Heath & Jackson, 2013).
The decision not to validate the identified themes and to include terms like management and organization as distinct themes, rather than filtering them out as noise, is rooted in the study’s exploratory nature and its focus on understanding the ideological praxis of management. The research aims to uncover diverse interpretations and sentiments associated with management, rather than confirming predefined categories or hypotheses. This open-ended approach allows for a richer, more nuanced exploration of how management is constructed ideologically, providing insights into both commonalities and divergences in its definition. By including management and organization as distinct themes, the study acknowledges their centrality to the discourse on management practices. These terms are not merely noise but are integral to understanding the core concepts and recurring patterns within the literature. Their prevalence across different articles highlights their significance in shaping management ideology and praxis, making them essential for thematic analysis. Retaining these key terms as themes reflects their importance in capturing the essence of management discourse. Overall, the lack of validation underscores the study’s aim to map out a broad landscape of ideas rather than narrow down specific conclusions. This approach allows for an expansive investigation into how management is defined and conceptualized across various contexts, emphasizing both its multifaceted nature and ideological implications.
The method detailed here enabled an analysis of definitional statements of management. The results of this analysis point to the heterogeneity of conceptions of management to be found in published, academic works. Such an awareness points to the complexity of defining what management is, and what managers do. The results of this study are presented in the following section (Section 4).
4. Results
EBSCOhost Academic Search Complete was searched on 11 October 2024 using the previously described method (Section 3). Searching for the phrase organizational management, for full text, peer reviewed, PDF articles written in English resulted in the identification of 1444 articles. From that total, the top 100 most relevant articles were selected (the ordered list of articles is included in the Appendix). From those 100 articles, most (n = 61) contained the phrase management is, but many (n = 39) were found not to include the phrase. The number of times the phrase management is was found in the 100 articles selected ranged from a low of 0 (n = 39) to a high of 14 (n = 1). The distribution was determined to be positively skewed with a mode of 0, a median of 1, and a mean of 1.9 (SD = 2.71). A boxplot of the number of occurrences of the phrase management is per articles is presented as Figure 2.
Figure 2. Boxplot of the number of occurrences of the phrase “management is” per article.
As indicated in Figure 2, the interquartile range extends from 0 to 2 (M = 1.9), with the upper bound of the boxplot extending to 5 occurrences per articles. Of the 100 articles, 12 were found to be outliers in terms of the number of occurrences of the phrase management is. The outliers included articles with six (n = 4), seven (n = 1), eight (n = 3), nine (n = 2), ten (n =1), and fourteen references (n = 1). In total there were 189 statements found to include the phrase management is, of which 61 (~32%) were determined to be primarily definitional in terms of content. These statements were categorized in terms of their dominant content, resulting in six overarching management domains: a) management, b) human resource management, c) knowledge management, d) organizational management, e) project management, and f) other. The subjective grouping approach used to identify these six management domains relied on an interpretive process grounded in researcher knowledge of management theories, rather than a rigid coding framework. No explicit coding framework was utilized. The approach involved a qualitative assessment of each occurrence of the phrase management is within selected articles, considering the context and nuances of each statement within the larger context of the article. The categorization of statements into the six thematic domains was based on their content and perceived focus. This approach emphasized flexibility over repeatability. To mitigate potential biases inherent in subjective analysis, an iterative, reflective practice was used, in which each statement was assessed three distinct times to ensure consistency in categorization. The number of statements, and respective percentages, are reported in Table 1.
Table 1. Sentiment & thematic analysis of six management domains.
Management Domain |
Count |
Percent |
Management |
39 |
20.6% |
Human Resource Management |
43 |
22.8% |
Knowledge Management |
35 |
18.5% |
Organizational Management |
31 |
16.4% |
Project Management |
13 |
6.9% |
Other |
28 |
14.8% |
Total |
189 |
100% |
The domains of management (n = 39), human resource management (n = 43), knowledge management (n = 35), and organizational management (n = 31) were found to have roughly comparable numbers of the phrase management is. Project management (n = 13) had observably fewer occurrences of the phrase. The other category (n = 28) had a significant number of occurrences, but that result is an artifact of aggregation. That interpretation becomes apparent upon review of the actual statements within that domain (Section 4.6). Given the centrality of management to this study, those statements are presented first (Section 4.1).
4.1. Management Statements
There were 39 statements coded as management statements containing the phrase management is (Table 1), which accounts for a little under 21% of the total number of statements in this study. Of these statements, 12 (~31%) were considered to be definitional. For analytic purposes these observations were coded as numbers 1 through 39 inclusive. Each of these 39 statements are included in Table 2, along with the corresponding document and page number. Within these statements, there were definitions along with descriptions of components of management. These components covered aspects of management including conflict, participatory, performance, and self-management. One might argue that each of these components could have been presented as its own set of results. A case can certainly be made for that approach. Ultimately the decision was made to include them under the overarching domain of management because they were considered to be component parts of management, that is something a typical manager would need to integrate into one’s management style, rather than being a unique domain of management. The reader is encouraged to read each of the statements contained in Table 2, and determine if one agrees the selected treatment was appropriate.
Table 2. Comprehensive summary of management statements.
No. |
Doc. |
Page |
Statement |
1 |
12 |
1383 |
In addition, the organizational structure for management is poorly defined, and there is no seamless communication, information sharing and resource flow among elements of the system, an important principle in systems theory |
2 |
14 |
11 |
Accordingly, for the managers to be able to engage and work with these processes, active support from top management is essential |
3 |
15 |
451 |
Such management is based on the relatively low role of vertical management and the assignment of authority to self-regulation, horizontal links and personal responsibility at each link. |
4 |
15 |
451 |
In post-Soviet states, vertical administrative management is still valid, although it does not correspond to modern social, psychological and managerial trends. |
5 |
16 |
740 |
Shedding light on the role of leadership in conflict resolution, a study argued that constructive conflict management is a core leadership skill |
6 |
19 |
7 |
Specifically, on the one hand, the process of self-management is driven by employees’ intrinsic values, and the achievement of the organization’s goals is a testament to employees’ self-worth |
7 |
19 |
7 |
Employee self-management is based on mutual trust between leaders and employees, such that leaders trust employees to be capable of accomplishing the established goals, and employees trust that they will receive set rewards for accomplishing such goals |
8 |
19 |
14 |
The original driving force behind the role of self-management is rooted in the deep-seated needs of employees. |
9 |
21 |
195 |
Hypothesis 1b: Upper-level abusive management is negatively related to middle-level supervisor organizational embodiment. |
10 |
21 |
195 |
Hypothesis 2b: Upper-level abusive management is negatively related to middle-level supervisor psychological contract fulfillment. |
11* |
23 |
336 |
Management is responsible for ensuring that laws and guidelines are utilized correctly and optimally and reach the right decision level. |
12 |
41 |
232 |
59 (19.7%) disagree while 6 (2%) were undecided about the question that Performance management is used as a measure for efficiency in an organization. |
13* |
58 |
20 |
Cooperative management (also called “participatory management”) is a kind of management style whose main characteristic is frequent use of group decision making. |
14* |
58 |
20 |
According to the World Bank, cooperative management is the sharing of duties, rights, and responsibilities among the primary stakeholders, especially the nation state and local communities (a report prepared by the World Bank regarding the International Workshop on Community-Based Natural Resource Management). |
15* |
58 |
20 |
According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), cooperative management is defined as a partnership agreement between government and the local community of resource users, and maybe agents like nongovernmental organizations, research institutes, and other stakeholders of resources, to share authority and responsibility for managing some resource (FAO Fisheries and Agriculture Department). |
16 |
58 |
21 |
Cooperative management is not a simple mechanical technique that easily brings about quick results. |
17* |
58 |
23 |
Traditional cooperative management is concerned with decision making in which the government delegates (or transfers) part of its power (or authority) to others. |
18 |
58 |
23 |
One of the main components of cooperative management is, in addition to resource management, the relationships existed among regulators, users, and other stakeholder individuals. |
19 |
58 |
24 |
Results indicated that cooperative management is significantly associated with empowerment and mental health (Iranzadeh 2010). |
20 |
58 |
26 |
Results indicated that cooperative management is significantly associated with empowerment and organizational justice perception of employees. |
21 |
59 |
376 |
Performance management is widely used as tool for human resource or program management. |
22 |
59 |
377 |
Thus, performance management is anticipated to improve organizational performance by enhancing individuals’ job performance as well as employees’ accountability in an organization (Cho & Lee, 2012). |
23 |
60 |
2356 |
Employee management is highly dependent on leadership qualities (Bushra, Usman, Naveed, 2011; Dev, 2015). |
24* |
63 |
370 |
Management is derived from the word “to manage” which means to organize, arrange, or manage. |
25 |
66 |
1219 |
In this study, the authors assume that one of the main objectives of management is to encourage behaviors that reinforce their specific rationality and the standardization of that rationality. |
26 |
68 |
3095 |
Effective management is indispensable at every stage, from the initial idea or only a possibility, till a successful and valuable commodity or service, or a new and feasible internal procedure. |
27 |
69 |
306 |
Such cynicism, especially towards management, is a function of the past performances of managers. |
28* |
81 |
928 |
According to the managerial grid presented, bureaucratic management is the intersection between the convergent managerial view and the maintenance practice. |
29 |
81 |
929 |
This type of management is consistent with a model in which the individual is of the bureaucratic type, the culture is integration (Martin, 1992), and leadership is transactional (Bass, 1990). |
30 |
83 |
277 |
Performance management is a relatively new concept, being assimilated to performance evaluation results. |
31 |
84 |
369 |
While BPM represents a more operational management approach by which organizations maintain good performance on a daily basis, corporate performance management (CPM) is a typical approach with a strong strategic emphasis. |
32* |
85 |
199 |
Participatory management is a process in which employees are empowered to participate in organizational decision making, and through the wise use of participatory management, managers make decisions based on the collective expertise, experience and wisdom of their employees. |
33 |
85 |
199 |
Karamian and Rouhani showed participatory management is significantly associated with all dimensions of OCB except for the forgiveness dimension. |
34 |
89 |
83 |
Second, performance management is vital for reviewing employees’ capabilities and assessing their productivity. |
35* |
92 |
6 |
Management is the process performed among a field of resources such as financial and human resources, in the absence of which the unit manager cannot fulfill its functions to acquire the programmed objectives. |
36* |
92 |
13 |
One of the responsibilities of the manager is to coordinate between human resources and material resources for the fulfillment of the objectives, and management is a social process that embraces planning, controlling, coordinating, and motivating. |
37* |
92 |
13 |
Management is the process of changing information to action. |
38* |
92 |
13 |
However, management is a science and art, with leadership being the main responsibility, but that is not the end of the story. |
39 |
100 |
499 |
The group management is in transition, with two generations in charge at strategic positions. |
Within the documents associated with the domain of management, the ideological praxis was defined in its classical sense. Faghih et al. (2016: doc. 92) provided the closest to the traditional definition of management by noting that “management is a social process that embraces planning, controlling, coordinating, and motivating” (p. 13). The traditional definition of management was phrased more succinctly by Faghih et al. when they explained that “management is the process of changing information to action” (p. 13). Definitions are often nuanced by the inclusion of context. Wiyono et al. (2020: doc. 63) provided historical context to the ideological praxis of management by noting that “management is derived from the word ‘to manage’ which means to organize, arrange, or manage” (p. 370). Beyond the traditional definition of management, which is generally and broadly accepted, and its historical context, authors sometimes decide to ground their definitions on an authoritative source. Nouri and Mousavi (2020: doc. 58) provided definitions of management from both the World Bank and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Department. The definitions from the global aid groups included atypical notions of management like sharing and cooperation. Other definitions within the management domain focused more attention on notions associated with authority and power.
Sleveland et al. (2022: doc. 23), described that “management is responsible for ensuring that laws and guidelines are utilized correctly and optimally and reach the right decision level” (p. 336). The definition provided by Sleveland et al. describes how management has the authority to administer laws and guidelines. Such authority can be extended to include how individuals act. According to de Nazaré Moraes Soares et al. (2020: doc. 66), “the main objective of management is to encourage behaviors that reinforce their specific rationality and the standardization of that rationality” (p. 1219). The control function of the ideological praxis of management, as revealed by this analysis of statements, can be extended to be both an authority for rule enforcement and individual behavior. If management, as traditionally defined, is about control, human resource management is at least partially about empowerment. The statements of the human resource management domain are presented in the following section (Section 4.2).
4.2. Human Resource Management Statements
There were more statements coded as dealing with human resource management (n = 43) than any other domain of management identified in this study. These statements accounted for nearly 23% of the total, and were coded as observations 40 through 82 inclusive. Of those statements, 11 (~26%) were definitional. Within this domain were statements related to career, collaboration, compensation, diversity, strategic, and talent management. Again, one could argue these are distinct forms of management. Within the context of articles, and in some cases the statements themselves, there is support for interpreting these elements as parts of human resource management rather than distinct domains of management. The statements are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Comprehensive summary of human resource management statements.
No. |
Doc. |
Page |
Statement |
40 |
1 |
1 |
The findings support our propositions, revealing a positive indirect effect through career aspirations, which diminishes when perceived organizational career management is strong. |
41* |
8 |
3 |
Strategic human resource management (SHRM) is a concept that emerged in the 1990s, combining the principles of strategy and human resource management. |
42* |
19 |
2 |
Strategic human resource management is a system, process, or measure consisting of a series of temporal activities taken in order to fit with the organization’s strategy and long-term development goals and thus maintain competitive advantage. |
43 |
19 |
13 |
Accordingly, strategic human resource management is an effective way in which enterprises can ensure their survival and obtain competitive advantages in the face of a crisis. |
44 |
19 |
14 |
Based on these findings, this paper argues that strategic human resource management is conducive to the enhancement of organizational resilience and is a possible way in which organizations can cope with potential crises and turbulent business environments. |
45 |
24 |
3 |
Therefore, human resource strategy management is related to a set of practices developed to achieve the company’s objectives, mainly in the financial area |
46 |
24 |
5 |
The presentation of why human resource management is related to the stakeholder theory can be complemented by highlighting how this integration is operationalized |
47 |
27 |
253 |
Talent management is one of the fundamental problems public and private sector companies meet. |
48 |
27 |
253 |
“Developing Talent (Management) is cheaper than buying a Talent.” |
49 |
27 |
253 |
It is suggested that integrating Human Capital Management and Talent Management is a good step. |
50 |
27 |
257 |
One of the factors that affect talent management is Organization culture. |
51 |
27 |
257 |
One of the processes in talent management is the important role played by the organization’s culture. |
52 |
27 |
257 |
Talent management is crucial for the organization in the current scenario. |
53 |
27 |
258 |
Effective Talent Management is the key to organizational success and increased productivity which will also attract and sustain the top talent in the organization. |
54 |
27 |
258 |
Recent development in talent management is discussed in the review. |
55 |
29 |
1 |
Diversity management is very important for organizations today because it can promote organizational trust, create employee innovative behavior and strengthen employee engagement, so every organization needs to establish policies regarding diversity management practices and consistently make it happen. |
56 |
29 |
1 |
Diversity management is needed to overcome employee perceptions of marginalization and control cultural differences and conflicts, thus creating a work team and increasing organizational efficiency. |
57 |
29 |
1-2 |
Diversity management is an inseparable part of managing an organization and as a way to overcome the challenges and obstacles faced in connection with diversity within the organization |
58 |
29 |
2 |
Diversity management is a critical part of management strategy that allows organizations to recognize differences among employees with the aim of acquiring competent employees regardless of gender, age, race, etc. to construct a knowledge foundation and increase synergy between employees and the organization |
59 |
29 |
2 |
Diversity management is a win-win situation for organizations looking to grow and compete across borders. |
60 |
29 |
2-3 |
Diversity management is useful in planning and developing programs according to needs and creating an organizational culture that can encourage diversity to optimize manpower productivity, build a multicultural dimension that embraces all work teams, design attractive meetings that are appropriate for everyone, and conduct recruitment, selection, motivation, and promotion of a diverse manpower |
61* |
29 |
3 |
Diversity management is the totality of managerial activities, namely marketing, production, finance, human resources, accounting, research and development, and innovation; and also, it includes management functions cover planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling |
62 |
29 |
4 |
The purpose of diversity management is to promote recognition, respect, and acceptance of individual uniqueness. |
63 |
29 |
5 |
Diversity management is one way to create a positive work environment where all employees in the organization feel accepted and valued for their uniqueness because of their background, ethnicity, religion, culture, and other differences inherent in employees. |
64 |
29 |
5 |
Organizational trust is a mediating variable between diversity management and employee engagement, because diversity management is an organizational policy in ensuring fairness, appreciate, and respect for employees. |
65 |
29 |
7 |
The results of testing the value of R Square for the construct of organizational trust is 0.518 which means that diversity management is able to explain the variance of organizational trust by 51.8%. |
66 |
29 |
9 |
These results are in accordance with the research findings of Alshaabani et al. (2022) that organizational trust is a mediating variable between diversity management and employee engagement, because diversity management is an organizational policy in ensuring fairness, appreciate, and respect for employees. |
67 |
29 |
9 |
Thus, it can be said that the practice of diversity management is very important for organizations today because it can promote trust in the organization, create employee innovative behavior, and strengthen employee engagement in the organization. |
68* |
29 |
9 |
According to Nart et al. (2018), diversity management is closely related to the competencies and perceptions of leaders. |
69 |
36 |
22 |
The implication is that when compensation management is practiced to a large extent, it significantly influenced or boost welfare programme, career development, performance appraisal, conflict management, recruitment & selection and employee empowerment in organisations. |
70 |
26 |
26 |
The result has indicated that HR practice such as compensation management is responsible for employees going extra miles to help their colleague and other employees. |
71* |
38 |
2 |
This type of management comprises measures planned and conducted in organizations to stimulate employees’ potential, strengthen their retention, and promote their self-actualization; thus, organizational career management is a human resources management tool through which employees are provided with opportunities in their organization to realize career development objectives, and close organization–employee connections are promoted |
72* |
51 |
20 |
Diversity management (MD) is the acceptance of the diversity that every employee has, the expression of diversities in the organization with managerial practices, and the provision of organizational opportunities with continuity for diversities (Pitts, 2009). |
73* |
60 |
2354 |
Collaborative human resource management is defined as a configuration of human resource management that focuses on porous work structures, network cohesiveness, team development, group incentives, emphasizes cooperation, information sharing, and knowledge transfer (Lepak and Snell 1999; Youndt and Snell 2004; Xing Su, Wang & Chen, 2019). |
74* |
60 |
2355 |
Collaborative human resource management is described as a configuration that focuses on porous work structures and personal networks, team development, and group incentives and emphasizes cooperation, information sharing, and knowledge transfer (Lepak & Snell 1999; Youndt & Snell 2004; Xing Su, Wang, & Chen, 2019). |
75 |
65 |
545 |
The process of talent management is highly significant and effective in a recruit, hire and trained the most talented employees within the organization. |
76 |
65 |
545 |
Therefore, talent management (TM) is now considered predominant success factor for achieving completive advantage (Khoreva, Vaiman, & Van Zalk, 2017). |
77 |
65 |
546 |
Talent management is being identified as a prime focal point of the organizations of the twenty-first century (Mensah, 2019). |
78* |
95 |
28 |
Human Resource Management (HRM) is a strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organization’s most valued assets-the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of its objectives (Armstrong, 2006). |
79* |
95 |
28 |
Strategic human resource management is a new approach, that helps in aligning the skills present in the employees with the goals to be achieved by the organization. |
80 |
95 |
31 |
HR an organization’s workforce, and its management is essential for the overall growth and development of the firm. |
81* |
95 |
31 |
Human resource management is responsible for the attraction, selection, training, assessment and rewarding employees in an organization. |
82 |
95 |
32 |
Compensation management is one of the important responsibilities of HR. |
As previously indicated (Section 4.1), there is a pronounced control element associated with the ideological praxis of management. Whereas this is not abandoned in the domain of human resource management, the element of control is nuanced with that of empowerment. Providing an overarching definition of the domain, Eneh and Awara (2016: doc. 95) indicated that “human resources management is responsible for the attraction, selection, training, assessment and rewarding employees in an organization” (p. 31). The elements of assessment and reward can be interpreted as being aspects of control. In terms of strategic human resource management, Anvari et al. (2023: doc. 8) provided historical context when they explained that “strategic human resource management…is a concept that emerged in the 1990s, combining the principles of strategy and human resource management” (p. 3). Strategic human resource management was defined by Yu et al. (2022b: doc. 19) as “a system, process, or measure consisting of a series of temporal activities taken in order to fit with the organization’s strategy and long-term development goals and thus maintain competitive advantage” (p. 2). These definitions point more to control than empowerment. However, there are elements within human resource management that provide a basis for authenticity, solidarity, and empowerment.
Diversity management was identified as a subdomain within human resource management, that holds emancipatory potential. Batmomolin et al. (2022: doc. 29) indicated that “diversity management is the totality of managerial activities, namely marketing, production, finance, human resources, accounting, research and development, and innovation, and also, it includes management functions cover planning, organizing, staffing leading, and controlling” (p. 3), with the purpose being to “promote recognition, respect, acceptance of individual uniqueness” (p. 4). The definition provided by Batmomolin et al. highlights all the traditional control functions of the ideological praxis of management. However, it also includes a focus on recognition, respect, and acceptance. Ateş and Ünal (2021: doc. 51) expressed a similar view in their work. There is emancipatory potential in the subdomain of collaborative human resource management as well. Setiawan (2020: doc. 60) provided two definitions of collaborative human resource management, noting that it “focuses on porous work structures, network cohesiveness, team development, group incentives, emphasizes cooperation, and knowledge transfer” (p. 2355). Many of the elements listed (e.g., porous work structures, network cohesiveness, team development, cooperation) provide a foundation for solidarity. Setiawan noted also the need for knowledge transfer. That aspect will be developed more fully in the next section (Section 4.3).
4.3. Knowledge Management Statements
There were 35 statements coded for the domain of knowledge management (18.5%). Of these statements, 17 (~49%) were considered definitional. These 35 observations were coded as numbers 83 through 117 inclusive. Of all the domains of management identified and examined in this study, this domain along with project management were the two with the most internal homogeneity. All but one of the statements specifically addressed knowledge management. Statement 107 addressed information management. Again, within the context of the article, it was clear that this was considered an element of knowledge management. The knowledge management statements are presented as Table 4.
Table 4. Comprehensive summary of knowledge management statements.
No. |
Doc. |
Page |
Statement |
83 |
10 |
20589 |
Nowadays, knowledge management is one of the newest and key management topics. |
84 |
10 |
20589 |
Indeed, knowledge management is a response to the increasing changes in the environment around current institutions. |
85* |
20 |
2 |
Knowledge management is the leading component in OI [Organizational Innovation] and is constructed on the ideology of new knowledge creation or innovation in the businesses and among employees to realize the anticipated organizational objectives |
86 |
28 |
719 |
Moreover, the literature shows that knowledge management is strongly correlated with the determinants of Drucker’s theory. |
87* |
34 |
6 |
In this study, we measured knowledge management using the dimensions of; knowledge creation, knowledge acquisition, knowledge sharing, and knowledge storage because knowledge management is a multidimensional concept |
88 |
34 |
12-13 |
Therefore, it appears, the model used to examine the interaction effect is additive because as the results in Table 6 indicate, the contribution of knowledge management is independent of the contribution of creative climate towards the changes that occur in organization innovation. |
89* |
41 |
216 |
The goal of knowledge management is to ensure that organizations are aware of the knowledge at their disposal both individually and collectively. |
90* |
41 |
217 |
Therefore, knowledge management is largely concerned with developing, depositing, extracting and sharing knowledge for subsequent retrieval which is needed to ensure smart decision for organizational growth and development |
91* |
41 |
217 |
According to Hislop (2013), knowledge management is an umbrella term which refers to any deliberate effort made to manage the knowledge of organizational workforce, which can be achieved via a wide range of methods including the direct use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) or more indirectly through the management of social processes, structuring of organization in a particular way or via the use of particular culture and people management practices. |
92* |
41 |
217 |
Knowledge management is concerned with the entire process of discovering and the creation of knowledge, dissemination of knowledge and the utilization of knowledge. |
93* |
41 |
222 |
By definition, knowledge management is a process that helps organizations find, select, organize, disseminate and transfer important information and expertise required for activities for problem solving, dynamic learning, strategic planning and decision making |
94 |
41 |
222 |
Even though knowledge management is dependent primarily on organization culture (due to its being shared), motivation, and policies, it requires the right technologies for its implementation to reach the goal of the firm. |
95* |
41 |
241 |
Knowledge management is concerned with the entire process of discovering and creation of knowledge, dissemination of knowledge, the utilization of knowledge and protection of knowledge. |
96* |
41 |
241 |
The goal of knowledge management is for an organization to become aware of its knowledge both individually and collectively. |
97 |
44 |
83 |
Therefore, the present study recognizes that knowledge management is vital to an increase in learning capabilities which benefit higher education institutes. |
98 |
44 |
83 |
Based on the knowledge-based view, knowledge management is a critical resource that supports an organization to gain more value. |
99 |
44 |
88 |
Knowledge management is also a key element of an organization that increases business value and creates a positive impact on organizational effectiveness. |
100 |
67 |
2 |
Through the combination of data mining techniques and machine learning methods, the correlation between various levels of knowledge management is analyzed, aiming to provide a direction for the development and application of enterprise knowledge management. |
101* |
67 |
4 |
From the application principle, the main purpose of knowledge management is to acquire, store, and apply relevant information |
102 |
67 |
4 |
The realization of knowledge management is a dynamic and systematic process. |
103 |
67 |
8 |
The level of knowledge management is also the key to this questionnaire survey. |
104 |
96 |
147 |
Knowledge management is in the blink of an eye comprehensively connected, both created and creating, whic [sic] are at diverse usage states (Asian Productivity Organization, 2005). |
105* |
96 |
149 |
Knowledge management is the methodology of information creation, endorsement, presentation, spread and appraisal (Bhatt, 2001). |
106* |
96 |
149 |
Knowledge management is an arrange of philosophy, systems and specific and administrative gadgets, laid out towards making, granting, utilizing information and data inside and around an association (Bounfour, 2003). |
107* |
96 |
149 |
Information Management is an exact and integrative system of encouraging association wide activities of securing, making, chronicling, offering, diffusing, making and passing on learning by individuals and totals in chase for major authoritative goals (Rastogi, 2000). |
108* |
96 |
149 |
Knowledge management is more a human resource administration rather than engineering based field. |
109 |
96 |
151 |
Knowledge management is viewed as the originator of performance (Darroch, 2005). |
110 |
96 |
151 |
Knowledge management is comprehensively applied in many countries, both underdeveloped & developing, which are at distinctive levels of use stage (Asian Productivity Organization, 2005). |
111 |
98 |
275 |
Knowledge management is recognized as important weapon for sustaining competitive advantage and improving performance. |
112 |
98 |
276 |
Knowledge Management (KM) in the organizational management is an area that has received increasing attention. |
113 |
98 |
276 |
Knowledge management is a new viewpoint for organizations which believe that if organizations want to be successful, they must gain access to knowledge and have a deep understanding of it in all layers. |
114* |
98 |
278 |
Running an organization which is based on the principles of knowledge management is a simple task and has already been explored for a long time, as affirmed by Davenport & Prusak (1999) when they say that KM is based on existing resources, which the organization can already be counting on, good information system management, organizational change management and good practice in human resources management. |
115 |
98 |
285 |
Thus, the regression equation for predicting knowledge management is: Y = b0 + b1x1 + b2x2 +…bpxp + e |
116* |
99 |
21 |
Brooking (1999, p. 154) believed that the function of knowledge management is “... to guard and grow knowledge owned by individuals, and where possible, transfer the asset into a form where it can be more readily shared by other employees in the company. “ |
117* |
99 |
21 |
Knowledge management is connected with a specific framework to capture, acquire, organize, and communicate tacit and explicit knowledge within an organization. |
As previously indicated, there is a degree of connection between human resource management and knowledge management. To progress, it is beneficial to start with a broad definition of the domain. Within Table 4, one can review Hussain et al.’s (2022: doc. 20) definition of knowledge management as “the leading component of OI [Organizational Innovation] and is constructed on the ideology of new knowledge creation or innovation in the business and among employees to realize the anticipated organizational objectives” (p. 2). There has been reference to the ideological praxis of management. The definition of knowledge management provided by Hussain et al. is useful in that it specifically describes that the domain is constructed on an ideology. A problem with any definition is that it can be reductionist. This can be the case for the management domains examined here. Mafabi and Lwanga (2022: doc. 34) indicated that knowledge management is a “multidimensional concept” (p. 6). Addressing the multidimensionality of knowledge management is facilitated by examining more than one definition of the domain.
Ahmed et al. (2015: doc. 96) defined knowledge management as “the methodology of information creation, endorsement, presentation, spread and appraisal” (p. 149). Within the definition provided by Ahmed et al., the notions of endorsement, spread, and appraisal lend themselves to critique. Whereas these elements are not exclusively subjugating, the managerial exercise of control over others can be accomplished through their enactment. Knowledge management can facilitate control. It can also facilitate empowerment. Osayande (2021: doc. 41) explained that knowledge management is a “process that helps organizations find, select, organize, disseminate and transfer important information and expertise required for activities for problem solving, dynamic learning, strategic planning and decision making” (p. 222), with the goal being “for an organization to become aware of its knowledge both individually and collectively” (p. 241). This individual and collective awareness can be a basis for authenticity and solidarity. Directing knowledge management towards an aim of liberation requires intentionality. One’s ability to do so is likely constrained by organizational dynamics. The domain of organizational management is examined next (Section 4.4).
4.4. Organizational Management Statements
Unlike the domains of knowledge and project management, there is a great deal of heterogeneity within the organizational management statements. It is worth noting that the search phrase used to identify articles for this study was organizational management. However, a distinction needs to be made between the article and the statement. The phrase organizational management was used to identify articles that were identified as containing information related to that field. Within those articles a search was conducted to identify statements containing the phrase management is. Whereas the article is at least notionally dealing with organizational management, it is certainly possible that the statement within the article is discussing a different domain of management. The observations in this section (n = 31), which account for about 16% of the total, were determined to be most directly related to organizational management. Of these statements, 7 (~23%) were considered definitional. These 31 statements were coded as observations 118 through 148. Specific areas of organizational management identified were healthcare, library, public housing, matrix, and school management. Under healthcare management were two subfields, incident and spiritual management. The statements for organizational management are presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Comprehensive summary of organizational management statements.
No. |
Doc. |
Page |
Statement |
118 |
3 |
3 |
Incident management is widely acknowledged as an effective approach to enhancing patient safety. |
119 |
3 |
7 |
The research framework, assessing the relationships between various organizational factors and incident management, is presented in Fig 2. |
120 |
3 |
10 |
Furthermore, the impact assessment of the organizational factors given the high state of incident management is summarized in Fig 6. |
121 |
3 |
12 |
Fig 5. Effect on variable once the high state incident management is established. |
122 |
4 |
2 |
Moreover, perceived spiritual management is another extremely important factor related to job satisfaction. |
123 |
4 |
3 |
Hypothesis 3 The level of spiritual management is positively associated with job satisfaction. |
124* |
4 |
3 |
Spiritual management is defined as a management that leads to the engagement and enthusiasm of employees by respecting the capabilities and participation of individuals, and furthermore, by respecting the life satisfaction and happiness of individuals, while thinking about society as a whole and not just pursuing the interests of a single company. |
125 |
4 |
9 |
Chen & Huang stated that perceived spiritual management is a key element that determines one’s job satisfaction in diverse workplaces. |
126 |
4 |
9 |
Consequently, evidence appears to indicate that perceived spiritual management is an extremely crucial factor that significantly boosts nurses’ job satisfaction. |
127 |
4 |
10 |
In conclusion, these findings indicate that perceived spiritual management is the strongest factor impacting job satisfaction among clinical nurses, and plays a significant mediating role in the relationship between job engagement and job satisfaction, as well as between organizational commitment and job satisfaction among clinical nurses. |
128 |
12 |
1369 |
To answer these questions the paper comprehensively examines how public housing management is organized by identifying the elements of management, and their interactions that produces the given outcomes that is the specific focus of this paper: housing maintenance. |
129 |
12 |
1371 |
This is necessary as the aim of housing management is to satisfy the tenant. |
130 |
12 |
1372 |
Whereas the framework helps to identify and describe the organization for housing management, systems thinking is applied to analyze that organization in order to answer the question of how public housing management is organized, and what challenges exist therein. |
131 |
12 |
1379 |
At the Municipal level, two strands of housing management is observed. |
132 |
12 |
1380 |
Related to expertise for management is the organizational culture necessary for an effective system of housing management. |
133* |
12 |
1381 |
Organizational culture is especially necessary because housing management is customer (tenant) centered. |
134 |
12 |
1381 |
If the tenant is not satisfied, then the system for housing management is not meeting its main aim. |
135 |
12 |
1382 |
Furthermore, the quality of public houses as expressed by tenants suggests that management is not achieving its aim. |
136 |
12 |
1382 |
If the system of housing management is not achieving its aim, it is an indication of poor functioning, which calls for the examination of the constituent elements to identify the problems therein. |
137 |
14 |
11 |
In addition, shifting perspective from an individual to an organizational perspective in the systematic work environment management is also a cultural change within an organization and it may take a longer time for potential effects on the mental models to occur. |
138* |
26 |
7 |
As one of the main functions of the system, book fee management is connected to several other important modules of the system, such as student management, textbook management, and administrator management. |
139 |
32 |
375 |
Innovative ideas and early partnering of anesthesia departments with hospital management is critical to the successful management in the surge of patients with COVID-19. |
140* |
63 |
370 |
School management is the process of utilizing the existing resources in school organizations, both humans and non-human resources, to obtain educational goals in schools. |
141 |
63 |
370 |
Moreover, the school management is the main factor that determines school performance. If a school is professionally managed, the school will have excellent performance. |
142 |
63 |
375 |
It can be concluded that all of the substance of school organizational management is connected to each other. |
143 |
63 |
377 |
Thus, the quality of organizational management is the very important resources that determine students’ achievement. |
144 |
63 |
377 |
The more qualified the organization management is, the higher school education output will be. |
145* |
79 |
227 |
Finally, matrix management is inherently a collaborative and participative structure; when it was unilaterally announced and imposed from above, it often failed. |
146* |
79 |
227 |
Galbraith asserts that matrix management is an essential form for the conduct of diversified, multinational enterprises that aspire to be effective international competitors. |
147 |
79 |
229 |
Once thought of as useful only in the corporate high-tech/temporary project setting, matrix management is gaining popularity as an appropriate alternative for today’s academic libraries. |
148* |
80 |
452 |
Collection management is generally a public services function, and, in many libraries, it is a responsibility assigned to reference librarians. |
Quotes related to the domain of organizational management are dissimilar to the quotes from the previous domains. This seems to be the result of the quotes being related to implementation of subordinate management concepts residing below or within the organizational level. As an example, within the organizational type of healthcare, Lee and Yu (2023: doc. 4) noted that “spiritual management is defined as a management that leads to the engagement and enthusiasm of employees by respecting the capabilities and participation of individuals, and furthermore, by respecting the life satisfaction and happiness of individuals, while thinking about society as a whole and not just pursuing the interests of a single company” (p. 3). Whereas spiritual management holds potential for enrichment within organizational contexts, it is not generally associated with organizational management. Similar findings were observed in the fields of housing and school management. Aziabah et al. (2023: doc. 12) noted that that the aim of housing management is “to satisfy the tenant” (p. 1371), and Wiyono et al. (2020: doc. 63) explained that “school management is the process of utilizing the existing resources in school organizations, both humans and non-human resources, to obtain educational goals in schools” (p. 370). Again, whereas these definitions are insightful for the application of managerial concerns within certain organizational contexts, neither addresses inherent aspects of organizational management generally. If the statements for organizational management lacked a general coherence or focus on the domain, the opposite was observed for the statements associated with project management (Section 4.5) which were marked by a near universal focus on domain definitions.
4.5. Project Management Statements
Like those of knowledge management, the statements for project management (n = 13) had a pronounced degree of homogeneity. In fact, all the observed statements specifically address project management in the statement management is. The fact that the domain with the fewest number of observations also had the greatest degree of content homogeneity is not overly surprising. Of these statements, 3 (23%) were considered definitional. One would generally expect variety to increase with the number of observations. The statements associated with the domain of project management were coded as observations 149 through 161, and are presented in Table 6.
Table 6. Comprehensive summary of project management statements.
No. |
Doc. |
Page |
Statement |
149 |
13 |
1 |
Project management is widely used in the implementation of new programs and system changes seen in information technology projects, building projects, automotive products, air-planes, defense systems and many other areas |
150 |
35 |
6 |
Unlike the EPC model, the PMC [project management contracting] contractor, as an extension of the project legal person in project management, is designed to make up for the lack of management capacity of the project legal person, fully reflecting the interests of the project legal person, whose profit comes from the management fee, and can eliminate the shortcomings of the project legal person’s inexperience and inappropriate management in the coordination of management. |
151* |
64 |
602 |
The definition of project management culture can be produced by the transition of Tylor’s definition to the project management domain: ‘Taken in its cultural context, project management is a complex whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, skills, attitudes, and other capabilities and habits acquired by people who are members of some project society’. |
152 |
64 |
604 |
This can be interpreted such as that the Indian system of project management is more mature than the Russian. |
153* |
70 |
41 |
Project management is a practice in which companies invest in order to obtain a better strategic option for the development of their company’s core activity and the optimization of their support activities; applying to the company objective and subjective quality. |
154 |
70 |
41 |
Maturity in project management is the position in which the company finds itself regarding the project management processes. |
155 |
70 |
41 |
The basis for achieving excellence in project management is best described by maturity models in project management, which are composed of stages that describe the difference in levels of maturity in project management (Souza and Gomes, 2015). |
156 |
70 |
41 |
This present section shows an introduction to this paper proposal: to align project management practices to organizational cultures typologies, for understanding specificities from these typologies have better use result if the practice in project management is recognized as the best practice to work together with the cultural and subcultural typology observed. |
157* |
70 |
43 |
Project management is the science deals with the project planning and control; that is, planning the execution before starting a project, and follow up with monitoring and evaluation of the planned in addition to the established goals, tasks and control in the necessary and available resources, and corrective actions when necessary (Prado, 1998). |
158 |
70 |
46 |
The questions were elaborated in the search of how the conduct of the practices in project management is carried out, with its organizational cultures. |
159 |
70 |
47 |
The project office existence in the company shows maturity degree in the conduct of the projects in the company, and also, if the project management is in the organizational strategy. |
160 |
70 |
50 |
This behaviour regarding the PMBOK practice is expected because, as observed in the literature review, some project management practices have a hard core in the PMBOK, and benchmarking to the US corporate market in project management is expected to adopt of this practice in project management in an enormous way in Brazil. |
161 |
79 |
225 |
When project management is managed through a matrix structure, it is a secondary organization, linking people and systems that already have a defined position in a primary organization. |
Defining the domain of project management is potentially a more tractable endeavor, at least insofar as managing things and events is easier than managing people. Titov et al. (2020: doc. 64) defined project management as “a complex whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, skills, attitudes, and other capabilities and habits acquired by people who are members of some project society” (p. 602). The definition provided by Titov et al. is interesting in at least two respects. First, the inclusion of beliefs as an element of focus widens the aperture of the traditional view of management. Second, the framing of a project society draws attention to both inclusion and exclusion. Only those who are working on a given project are part of its project society. Once one understands what one does as part of project management, it is useful to interrogate why organizations would pursue this domain. Silva and Simões (2019: doc. 70) indicated that companies invest in project management “in order to obtain a better strategic option for the development of their company’s core activity and the optimization of their support activities; applying to the company objective and subjective quality” (p. 41). They further explained that project management is a science that “deals with the project planning and control” (Silva & Simões, 2019: p. 43). This last statement brings this domain into the ideological fold of the praxis of management with its focus on science and control. With the domain of project management defined and examined, attention can be turned to the last domain, other (Section 4.6).
4.6. Other Management Statements
There is little reason to expect much coherence within any category labeled other. Such a category is used to aggregate the “odds and ends” that do not fit well elsewhere. This is certainly the case here. There were 28 observations coded as other (i.e., observations 162 through 189). These statements account for about 15% of the observations of this study. Of these statements, 11 (~39%) were considered definitional. Within the other category, there were a few elements that could have potentially been disaggregated and presented as a standalone domains. To have enough observations for the sentiment and thematic analyses it was determined to keep those smaller elements within this overarching domain category. Among the areas included in this section are adaption, creativity, design, ethics, impression, and supply chain management. The other management statements of this study are presented in Table 7.
Table 7. Comprehensive summary of other management statements.
No. |
Doc. |
Page |
Statement |
162 |
2 |
547 |
Total quality management is unquestionably a crucial pillar of the manufacturing industry’s transformation strategy, even though several studies have been carried out both nationally and internationally to examine and evaluate various sectors. |
163* |
17 |
4 |
The authors show the importance of prosumer energy management, as energy management is based on the objective function, energy sharing and the creation of a prosumer community. |
164 |
18 |
17 |
Furthermore, according to Kulikowska-Pawlak (2018), strategic political management is one of the core elements of organizational context (the other two are creative leadership and strategic design of the organization). |
165 |
31 |
3398 |
In Controlling the Supply Chain According to the available evidence, Supply Chain Management is critical to a company’s ability to achieve and sustain a competitive edge. |
166* |
31 |
3398 |
“Supply Chain Management” is defined by the Global Supply Chain Forum (GSCF) as “the integration of important business processes from end user via original suppliers that deliver goods, services, and information that generate value for the customers and other stakeholders” |
167 |
31 |
3399 |
Aruna Kumari and Vijaya Kumar (2013) explored that supply chain management is crucial for corporations to survive in today’s competitive market. |
168 |
35 |
3 |
Postevaluation of conflict management is also an important part, assessing the quality of conflict management in five dimensions: satisfactory resolution outcome, comprehensive resolution process, conflict prevention, perception of fairness, and postconflict effects |
169 |
42 |
6 |
The management of vouchers is to input the data of the financial accounting system into the quality gate, and it is the first confirmation of the information quality in the accounting business, so the design of voucher management is very important. |
170* |
45 |
3 |
Impression management is the individuals’ aim to increase their attractiveness to others and thereby influence decision makers’ behaviors |
171* |
45 |
3 |
While behavioral performance affects the development of the overall organization, impression management is purposeful and engaged behavior, and organizational citizenship behavior an act of selfless dedication to the self. |
172* |
50 |
970 |
The results of the present study suggest that quality management is a system with multiple interlinked dimensions. |
173* |
59 |
372 |
Ethics management is defined as the advancement and maintenance of a strongly ethical environment that pervades all activities in a public organization. |
174 |
59 |
373 |
Ethics management is an effective managerial control device that guides right and wrong behavior within an organization, is characterized with formal and informal strategy, and is designed to reduce unethical behavior within an organization. |
175* |
59 |
374 |
Ethics management is the advancement and maintenance of an ethical environment within an organization. |
176 |
59 |
387 |
Second, informal ethics management is an antecedent not only of reduced unethical behavior in an organization but also of increased organizational commitment and organizational performance. |
177 |
67 |
2 |
Engineering cost management is critical to civil engineering construction, and those engineering cost consulting enterprises are responsible for engineering cost consulting management and other services. |
178 |
76 |
224 |
First, while total quality management is widely applied in large listed manufacturing companies (C. B. Fotopoulos & Psomas, 2009). |
179* |
81 |
923 |
Creativity management is a component of a managerial grid focused on interfering in the internal and external contexts of an organization by reviewing deviant and divergent practices regarding the stimulation of creative processes. |
180 |
81 |
924 |
In this sense, the implementation of creativity management is key to the discussion and enhances the leverage of organizational creativity that brings structural projects to the conceptual status of innovation. |
181* |
81 |
929 |
Adaptation management is produced by the intersection between a maintenance managerial direction and a divergent managerial view. |
182* |
81 |
932 |
In light of this, creativity management is associated with the effort to endow the social framework with values and symbols that support individuals’ and leaders’ actions, ensuring a certain legitimacy for actions that focus on producing and implementing ideas. |
183 |
81 |
933 |
Coordination among the three elements and its link with creativity, establishing the theoretical concept of creativity management, is illustrated in Figure 2 |
184 |
81 |
934 |
The inter-relationship of structural elements of creativity management is essential for the generation of ideas, given the social and policy perspective of the organization and the need for legitimation and complementary knowledge from individuals to consolidate ideas and transform them into products or services. |
185 |
81 |
935 |
From this perspective, the more creativity management is applied over time, the greater the growth of organizational creativity, represented by the straight line in Figure 3 in the form of a vector, and the greater its potential for innovation. |
186 |
84 |
369 |
Thus, business process management (BPM) is becoming increasingly important. |
187 |
87 |
177 |
An efficient way to test the level of preparation of City Emergency Management is to hold a Field Exercise in a vulnerable city. |
188* |
88 |
195 |
Borja de Mozota (2003, p. 71) conceptualizes “design management is the implementation of design as a formal program of activity within a corporation by communicating the relevance of design to long-term corporate goals and coordinating design resources at all levels of corporate activity to achieve the objectives of the corporation”. |
189 |
88 |
195 |
The mapping of competencies allows them to be stimulated and developed at the individual and collective level and thus, the design management is executed and implemented in organizations. |
Whereas there is little utility derived from forcing coherence where there isn’t any, as in the case of a category comprised of others, there is potential benefit to be derived in finding threads of commonality among disparate elements. One of the tactics observed in the definitions examined in this study is the move of establishing a definition based on an external, respected, organization. This tactic was used for the definition of supply chain management when Vijaya Rao et al. (2022: doc. 31) referenced the Global Supply Chain Forum to define supply chain management as “the integration of important business processes from end user via original suppliers that deliver goods, services, and information that generate value for the customers and other stakeholders” (p. 3398). There is nothing inherently wrong with this approach. Grounding definitions in this way can be an effective means of establishing credibility. Beyond this technique, some of the other definitions within this domain offer glimpses of less frequently examined aspects of the ideological praxis of management.
Given the power of management, it is appropriate to consider elements associated with its ethical application. Khaltar and Moon (2020: doc. 59) defined ethics management as “the advancement and maintenance of a strongly ethical environment that pervades all activities in a public organization” (p. 372). Part of the concern with ethical management is the legitimacy of the actions taken. This concern overlaps with the definition of creativity management presented by Muzzio and Paiva Júnior (2018: doc. 81), who indicated that “creativity management is associated with the effort to endow the social framework with values and symbols that support individuals’ and leaders’ actions, ensuring a certain legitimacy for actions that focus on producing and implementing ideas” (p. 932). One should note that as stated the goal is only to ensure a certain legitimacy for the actions taken. This could be accomplished through impression management that Hou et al. (2021: doc. 45) defined as an “individuals’ aim to increase their attractiveness to others and thereby influence decision makers’ behaviors” (p. 3). With these loose ends tied up, it is possible to turn attention to the results of the sentiment and thematic analyses of associated with the six management domains identified in this study (Section 4.7).
4.7. Sentiment & Thematic Analysis Results
The sentences for each of the six management domains of this study, a) management, b) human resource management, c) knowledge management, d) organizational management, e) project management, and f) other, were analyzed in terms of their respective sentiments and major themes. As indicated in the method (Section 3), the sentiments were assessed using both the Bing and AFINN lexicons. For context in interpretation, the Bing lexicon provides a basic polarity assessment of positive or negative, whereas the AFINN lexicon provides a numeric value ranging from -5 (extremely negative) to +5 (extremely positive). The LDA technique was used for the identification of major themes. The results of the sentiment and thematic analyses of the six management domains of this study are presented in Table 8.
Table 8. Sentiment & thematic analysis of six management domains.
Management Domain |
Bing |
AFINN |
Themes |
Management |
Positive |
0.86 |
Management | Knowledge | Organization |
Human Resource |
Positive |
1.39 |
Management | Diversity | Human |
Knowledge |
Positive |
1.56 |
Management | Knowledge | Organization |
Organizational |
Positive |
1.42 |
Management | Organizational | Organization |
Project |
Positive |
0.90 |
Project | Management | Practice |
Other |
Positive |
0.66 |
Management | Organizational | Organization |
In terms of the Bing sentiment, each of the six management domains was determined to have a positive sentiment. The AFINN sentiment provides a little more nuance in these results. The other domain had the lowest AFINN sentiment score (0.66), and the knowledge management domain had the highest score (1.56). The average AFINN sentiment score across the six management domains was 1.13 (SD = 0.37). The results of the LDA thematic analysis found that management was a dominant theme for each of the six domains. Organization was a dominant theme in all but human resource management. In terms of unique themes, human resource management contained the themes of diversity and human, and project management contained the themes of project and practice. The thematic analysis suggests that there is significant, thematic connection among the six management domains of this study, but that human resource management and project management are the most specialized in terms of their unique thematic content.
Collectively, these results suggest that the ideological praxis of management can be understood of consisting of different domains. Of the 189 statements, 61 (~32%) were considered definitional in terms of content. The analysis of statements containing the phrase management is, in the top 100 most relevant organizational management articles contained in EBSCOhost Academic Search Complete resulted in six management domains: a) management, b) human resource management, c) knowledge management, d) organizational management, e) project management, and f) other. Each of these management domains was determined to have a positive sentiment and contain the dominant themes of management and organization. Of the six management domains, human resource management and project management were determined to be the most thematically unique. Whereas these results are useful in understanding and confronting the ideological praxis of management, the study is not without its limitations, which are presented next (Section 5).
5. Limitations
This study provides a textual analysis basis for understanding the ideological praxis of management at the sentence-level. Whereas the results are useful for awareness and action, there are limitations. The first set of limitations are associated with the article selection process. This study was based on 100 articles selected from EBSCOhost Academic Search Complete. There was a degree of arbitrariness associated with examining 100 articles. Whereas that number provides opportunity for detecting variation in usage, in research more observations are generally preferable to fewer. In terms of source, this study is based on academic publications from a single search engine. It would be useful to expand the research to include a variety of alternative types of sources. This might include, among other sources, popular, trade publications, movies, lyrics, and social-media posts. Broadening the aperture to include these alternative sources could provide a more holistic understanding of the ideological praxis of management in society. Using different academic search engines would provide a basis for comparative studies as well. There is also a limit induced by examining only articles written in English. Focusing exclusively on Anglophonic texts induces bias and excludes the rich polyvocality of academic discussions that need to take place regarding the ideological praxis of management. Extending this study to include those voices would be constructive and beneficial.
Another limitation of this study emerged from the exclusive focus on the search phrase management is. This phrasing is perhaps the most direct and simple way of constructing a definition. At its core, is, represents a definition of identity. Functional definitions (e.g., what something does) provide different insights and are based on different linguistic constructions. Functional definitions do not typically contain the is of identity, but rather focus on some form of do, or other form of action. Expanding the research beyond the is of identity would likely provide greater insight into the ideological praxis of management.
Lastly, any act of grouping requires an act of interpretation. This study combined statements into management categories. The rationale behind each of these groupings was explained, and each of the statements was included. In the absence of certainty, there is at least transparency. The groupings used in this study, while coherent, are contestable. Different groupings of these statements could produce different insights. This is less of concern for the sentiment since all the groupings, using either Bing or AFINN sentiment lexicons, resulted in positive statements. However, there could be a difference in the themes generated through LDA. All the information is here if one wishes to pursue a sensitivity analysis of the results.
The understandings developed from this study could be beneficially refined, expanded, and nuanced by addressing these concerns in future research. The results of this study provide a basis for understanding and action. A summary of the study and the key results are presented next (Section 6), along with a call to action.
6. Conclusion
Contours emerged of the ideological praxis of management through this analysis of its content, sentiments, and themes. The results of this study of the sentences containing the phrase management is (n = 189) found in the top 100 most-relevant, peer-reviewed, full-text, PDF articles, written in English, contained in EBSCOhost Academic Search Complete suggest that management is multifaceted and contains a universally positive sentiment. Elements of control were frequently associated with definitions of management, and ideology was specifically referenced. If management is going to be something more than subjugating, it will need to place greater focus on the potentially liberatory elements found in two of its domains. Human resource management was found to contain the elements of diversity, respect, and acceptance, and knowledge management was found to be based on individual and collective understandings that could be from a basis for authenticity and solidarity. The results of the content analysis were consistent with those of the thematic analysis.
The results of the thematic analysis revealed that management and organization operate across management domains. Human resource management and knowledge management were found to offer hope for something more progressive. A theme of diversity was found to be dominant in human resource management, and a theme of knowledge was central to knowledge management. Knowledge and diversity hold potential for emancipatory praxis and solidarity. Transforming work from a source of drudgery to one of fulfillment requires a critique of the dominant ideological praxis of management. Centering what can now only be found at the periphery will take sustained effort. Management is as alterable as it is inescapable.
To foster genuine solidarity and inspire transformative action, it is crucial for the fragmented-social collective to engage more critically with and transcend the entrenched ideological praxis of management, embracing in the process a more inclusive and dynamic approach that values diversity and empowers organizational workers. The results of this study suggest that the domain of human resource management might be the area that is most conducive for such a transformation to start. If management refuses to advance a more inclusive and progressive paradigm, workers will need to agitate in solidarity for its enactment.
Acknowledgements
R. A. J. thanks the administration, faculty, and staff of Wittenberg University for supporting the sabbatical that enabled this research and publication.
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