Lingual and Cultural Features of the Semantics of Metrological Phraseological Units with the Component—Common Name Measure, Messen, Miara, Mіра on the Example of English, German, Polish and Ukrainian Languages ()
1. Introduction
Lingual and cultural features of the semantics of English, German, Polish and Ukrainian metrological phraseology are closely related to the concept of “metrology”, which, with the units of measure, includes the development and formation of measuring systems, measuring instruments, methods of measurement and related public interests and cultural ties between states.
The metrological phraseology of the four languages chosen for the description interacts closely with the systems of measures and measurements, with the history of the origin and formation of units of measurement. Metrological phraseology also has a close relationship with lexicology that reflects the cultural and historical processes of development in England, Germany, Poland and Ukraine.
Metrology is the science that goes about the history of measures and units of measurement. Metrology itself studies linear measures, measures of volumes and capacities of liquid and loose bodies, surface measures, measures of weight (Vynnyk, 1966: p. 73). The first linear measures and units of measurement were inaccurate, but with the development of science they become more accurate and correlate with each other, divided into smaller and larger, thus creating a system of mathematical nature (Bondarenko, 2015: p. 74). From ancient times, the mankind has used the simplest units of measurement. The first “standards” of linear measures were human fingers, hands, feet (Sydorenko, 1979: p. 13), which is mainly related to the physiological structure of the human body and its movements. Associative connections with the names of metrological units have formed the basis of the semantics of many metrological PU that have survived in the language to this day.
1.1. Research Background
The source of ancient metric systems is a human and the work one performs, so the ancient metric systems are anthropological in nature. Their origin corresponds to the nature of socio-economic relations that existed in different historical periods in the past, which gave rise to all measurement systems. Metrology is an important source, which has a large number of names of metrological units for linguistic research, in particular the lingual and cultural description of the semantics of PU (which they are components of).
Throughout the period of human civilization, metrological units are always completely dependent on the development of society, which is vividly reflected in the language and preserved in the national and cultural semantics of a large number of English, German, Polish and Ukrainian metrological PU, emphasizing their linguistic and cultural features.
Regarding the example of the common name of eng. measure, germ. Messen/ Maß, pol. miara/miarka, ukr. міра/мірка and species names of linear units eng. yard-stick/yard, germ. Elle, pol. łokieć, ukr. лікоть/аршин; eng. inch, germ. Zoll /Fingerbreit, pol. cal, ukr. цаль/цоль; eng. foot, germ. Fuß, pol. stopa, ukr. фут trace the formation of the metric system, from the Middle Ages to the end of XIX-early XX century. The names of ancient metrological units to denote linear mea-sures and to denote a measure of weight have become obsolete over time, they have become archaisms, but they continue to be used in phraseology, being components of a number of PU of the studied languages.
1.2. Research Methodology
To achieve the aim the authors used the set of methods and techniques that enable the historic study of the material. Namely they are descriptive, comparative, contextual method, method of component analysis, etymological, semantic analysis and the comments based on the historic feedback. They all serve as the means of systematizing the semantic and functional features of the studies Pus.
1.3. Research Significance
The research of linguoculturological parameters of the semantics of metrological PhU opens up new opportunities for investigating the mechanism of the functioning of phraseological system of the language, and also confirms connection of PhU with the consciousness of native speakers and promotes further development in the theory of phraseology. Linguistic and cultural parameters of the semantic peculiarities of metrological phraseology in English, German, Polish and Ukrainian are closely related to the concept of “metrology”, which includes not only units of measurements but also establishment of measurement tools, methods of measurement, the interests of the society as well as cultural ties between the countries. Metrological phraseology of the four languages demonstrates the close coincidence of the systems of weights and measurements with the formation of metrological PhU; it reflects the processes of cultural and historical development in England, Germany, Poland and Ukraine.
2. Literature Review
A special literature devoted to the description of units of measurement, in particular the work of V. Vynnyk “Names of units of measurement and weight in the Ukrainian language” (Vynnyk, 1966), G. Bondarenko “Special historical disciplines” (Bondarenko, 2015), E. Partridge “Name into world” (Oxford Chambers Dictionary of Idioms, 2002), “German language, the way of life. Measures of length, weight and volume in the German language” recorded the general name of metrological units in eng. measure, germ. Messen/Maß, pol. miara/miarka, ukr. міра/мірка and more than 10 species names to indicate measures of volume, capacity and weight of bulk bodies and liquids, as well as linear and path measures that are productive in the creation of PU. However, the highest performance was found in the following names: the common generic name of metrological units in eng. measure, germ. Messen/Maß, pol. miara/miarka, ukr. міра/мірка; eng. yard-stick/yard, germ. Elle, pol. łokieć, ukr. лікоть which meant the distance from the end of the fingers to the elbow and at different times had different lengths (44 - 78 cm); eng. inch, germ. Zoll/Fingerbreit, pol. cal, ukr. цаль/цоль/дюйм which meant the width of the thumb (approximately 2.5 cm); species names for the volume, capacity and weight of bulk bodies and liquids eng. sack/bag, germ. Sack, pol. worek, ukr. мішок; eng. barrel, germ. Faß/Fass, pol. beczka, ukr. бочка; eng. sieve/sifter, germ. Sieb, pol. rzeszoto/przetak; ukr. решето/сито; eng. bushel, pol. korzec, ukr. корець; eng. pound, germ. Pfund, pol. funt, ukr. фунт; eng. pot, germ. Krug, pol. dzban, ukr. Дзбан and descriptive names of units for approximate distance, surface length, water depth, and object thickness. To have much clear understanding of this particular work, we will consider all those metrological units in separate sections.
3. Theoretical Framework
Initially, this metronym was used in agriculture and was an approximate measure of bulk agricultural products, liquids, as well as a measure of grain and a measure of manure. Regarding the dictionary articles, we found that the metronym eng. measure, germ. Messen/Maß, pol. miara/miarka, ukr. міра/мірка is ambiguous and is used in the meanings: 1) a device for measuring (ruler or utensils with divisions), as well as a measured portion of something; 2) measure—a household unit of volume of loose bodies of different sizes (16 - 25 kg; 8 pots or 1 quadruple) and a vessel of such capacity; 3) a scroll of home-woven fabric with a length of 70 - 80 cm or a measure of length for the fabric, which was approximately equal to 30 inches; 4) measure is a payment to the miller for ground grain (Hrinchenko, 1996: Vol. ІV, p. 692). At the same time, the metronym measure has the generalized meaning “the size, length or content of loose bodies and liquids”.
In the phraseology of four studied languages, the metronym eng. measure, germ. Messen/Maß, pol. miara/miarka, ukr. міра/мірка has been established as a common generic name for all types of measurement and a household measure of the volume and capacity of bulk agricultural products and liquids. It is believed that the exchange of bulk agricultural products (cereals, grains, flour) and liquids has long been carried out according to the rule: measured not to their weight but volume, so the same bulk products were measured by dishes of the same capacity, i.e. measures.
PUs with this metronym are mainly based on a metaphorical rethinking of the speech situation and belong to the stylistic devices that play a significant role in enriching the vocabulary of the language and perform a figurative, expressive function. Metaphors as a method of thinking about the world are a kind of mini-models of the results of the speakers’ cognitive activity (Mokiyenko, 1989: p. 85).
The metronym eng. measure in English phraseology functions in the expression eng. measure for measure—“people will treat you the way you treat them; you are valued the way you value others”, which conveys the basic criteria of intellectual or emotional evaluation of a person. The expression dates back to the Middle Ages (1604) and has been in active use for more than four centuries. Been synonymous with eng. measure for measure are PU: germ. Mit welchem Mass ihr messet, wird euch gemessen werden; ukr. якою мірою міряєш, такою і тобі відміряється; міра за міру with generalized semantics “there are no sinless people; adhere to a standard of behavior “, which conveys the pragmatic experience of many generations of speakers—involves a similar reaction of speakers to a particular situation. In the Polish paremiological fund, paremias that function both in full and in reduced form are synonymous: pol. jaką miarą mierzycie, taką wam odmierzą (jeszcze wam dołożą); jaką miarą mierzysz, taką ci odmierzą; jaką miarą mierzyć człówieka; jaką miarą sądzicie. In these paremias we find a figurative representation of the concept “you are valued in such a way you evaluate others; it is necessary to adhere to the standard of conduct”. A more general meaning is represented in pol. nie sądźcie, abyście nie byli sądzeni. The described metrological PU possesses instructive character: morality—we must be fair while evaluating the intellectual or moral qualities of man because we will be treated the same way by others.
The common phraseological fund of the Polish and Ukrainian languages made it possible to emergence the variative and synonymous series of metrological PU: pol. przykładać do kogoś/czegoś równą taką samą/swoją miarę; ktoś mierzy kogoś/coś jakąś/swoją miarką; ktoś przykłada do kogoś/czegoś jakąś miarę; mierzyć kogoś/ coś równą/taką samą/swoją miarą; ukr. міряти/зміряти своєю міркою когось/ щось; міряти на одину міру/мірку/на один аршин когось; міряти на свою (куцу) мірку міряти/на свій аршин; зміряти своєю міркою/своїм ліктем когось/ щось; міряти по собі. In this variative and synonymous series the metronym is the general name of pol. miara, ukr. міра and has a variative metrological components of pol. miarkа, ukr. мірка which is the former species name of the approximate measurement of grain weighing 16 - 25 kg.
The emergence of these variative and synonymous metrological PU in Polish and Ukrainian languages is explained by the symmetry of figurative rethinking of linguistic phenomena in these two Slavic languages. In the figurative perception of PU of this variative and synonymous series, the craft of merchants left their mark, who used less grain when selling agricultural products than when buying, which was reflected in the pragmatic approach to speakers’ assessment of a specific situation, according to their own criteria and subjectivity”. These series actualize the connotative feature “to approach the characteristics of different people, phenomena, circumstances, without taking into account individual features” and characterizes the emotionally expressive speech.
These synonymous PU in Polish and Ukrainian languages have a long origin, they were often used in the language and passed the test of generations, because the image of the reality of former life has remained in the memory of native speakers—common Slavic nationally labeled metronyms pol. miara/miarka, ukr. міра/ мірка, лікоть, аршин. Once these words-realities were part of the main vocabulary and were characterized by high frequency of use, but they became obsolete and are now on the periphery of the Polish and Ukrainian lexical system: arshin, elbow—the names of approximate dimensions (elbow was 38 - 58 cm; arshin was equal to four quarters or the length of the whole hand from shoulder to fingertips (Avksent’yev, 1987). As part of this synonymous series of words-realities of the former life of pol. miara/miarka, ukr. міра/мірка, аршин, лікоть the PU are used with a bright stylistic color: they are a sign of figurative and emotional worldview.
The synonymous PU described in Polish and Ukrainian languages are used in such a speech situation when it is necessary to provide an intellectual or emotional assessment of a person’s work and activity in relation to the expected result. The study of the history of the establishment and development of education in Volyn will help to understand the educational processes in Ukraine in the 19th century more deeply (Kotsiuk, 2021: pp. 14-15). Repetitions of the root elements of the morpheme mier-, miar-, мір- perform an additional intensification function. The functioning of such Polish-Ukrainian synonymous metrological PU is probably due to the need for images that correspond to the historical period of existence of metronyms of the former life and for the use of figurative, metaphorical means of expression. It saves mental effort and expresses the needs of emotionality and expressiveness. Metaphors enrich the text with a cascade of additional associative meanings/signs, emotional and evaluative characteristics, expressiveness (Shostak, 2003: p. 52).
The peculiarity of the use of PU pol. mierzyć kogoś/coś jakąś miarką is that Polish lexicographical sources record its variability in different ways. Thus, “Inny slownik języka polskiego” edited by M. Banko records this PU: Jeśli chcesz ją zrozumieć, wczuj się w jej sytuację zamiast mierzyć ją swoją miarką (Dobrovolskii, 1997: p. 250); The previous measure of students’ arts (Dobrovolskii, 1997: p. 249). The dictionary “Wielki słownik frazeologiczny polsko-rosyjski” edited by Y. Lukshin, PU with variant components are recorded—równą/taką samą/swoją: mierzyć kogoś/coś równą/taką samą/swoją miarą. For example: Mierząc Krzysztofa swoją miarą naczelnik wydziału zapewnił że on jest niezamiennym pracownikiem (Linde, 1854: p. 181).
The specifics of the use of PU pol. mierzyć kogoś/coś jakąś miarką; ukr. міряти на свою (куцу) мірку is that their component contains a metronym—a common name to denote the volume and capacity of the pol. miarа, ukr. мірка that in the past was an inaccurate unit of measurement, so both Poles and Ukrainians have a wider choice of means of expressing the concept of “evaluating, characterizing someone/something from their point of view, according to their own criteria, subjectively”.
The described metrological PU with a metronym name denotes the volume and capacity of bulk bodies and liquids eng. measure, germ. Messen/Maß, pol. miara/ miarka, ukr. міра/мірка and is not etymologically transparent, i.e. motivated for modern speakers of English, German, Polish and Ukrainian, because this metronym is historicism. However, this does not complicate the understanding of the meaning of these PU of four languages, because there was a process of deetymologization of PU, i.e. the loss of etymological links with the word-reality (Ivanova, 2003: p. 13).
The development of synonymy and variability of the studied metrological phraseology was influenced by economic relations between England, Germany, Poland and Ukraine, which are close neighbors. And this led to the imposition of metro-logical systems of four languages, which affected the emergence of the semantic model “do not count everything to yourself”, which is reflected in the synonymous PU. Germans, Poles and Ukrainians actively use PU: germ. man kann nicht alle Schuhe über einen Arsch besetzen; pol. nie należy mierzyć wszystkich swoją miarą/miarką; ukr. не можна всіх одною міркою міряти; не міряй своєю міркою however, Germans used excellent imagery in their language.
In pol. nie należy mierzyć wszystkich swoją miarą/miarką; ukr. не можна всіх одною міркою міряти; не міряй своєю міркою we may observe the changes of the grammatical forms pol. swoją miarę/swoją miarą; ukr. на свою (куцу) мірку/ своєю міркою occurring within the generally accepted morphological paradigm.
The pragmatic knowledge of speakers about metrological units that existed in the past was superimposed on the figurative representation of these PU, distrust of inaccurate measuring instruments used before the introduction of a single metric system. And this is extremely important for understanding and perceiving the specifics of the semantic features of the described metrological PU and for revealing their connection with the national culture (Plyushch, 2006: p. 20).
These synonymous PU with the meaning “to evaluate, characterize someone/ something from one’s point of view, according to one’s own criteria, subjectively” have some differences in functioning. Polish PU is part of the innovative contamination of pol. nie należy mierzyć wszystkich swoją miarą/miarką, nie każdy jest taki sam which the Poles use in their everyday communication. The extended PU ukr. не мір мене своєю міркою, бо я й у більшу влізу has a brighter expression and is used with greater emotional meaning.
The highlighted PU with the metronym eng. measure, нім. Messen/Maß, pol. miara/miarka, ukr. міра/мірка originate from the time when linear measures, measures of volume and capacity of bulk bodies and liquids were inaccurate and each merchant, taking into account the proximity of these measures, tried to use a measure favorable to him (arshin or elbow), depending on whatever he bought or sold. When buying, merchants usually used greater measures (i.e. their own) than when selling. Many researchers distinguish the cognitive styles of men and woman which is due to the fact that man tended to demonstrate a context-dependent decision-making strategy, choosing of what fits their goal (Voloshina, 2022: pp. 534-535).
Phraseology is constantly evolving, so there are new PU. For example, the language characteristics of media discourse of the late twentieth—early twenty-first century are Polish innovative PU mierzyć ludzi swoją miarą (generalization); mierz jedzenie swoją miarą (the problem of obesity); miara dobrobytu społecznego (level of social welfare), the purpose of which is to attract attention, to enhance the impression of what is read or heard, to make a person an active participant in the discussion.
In these PU, speakers of four languages have retained the stereotype of the use of metronym eng. measure, germ. Messen/Maß, pol. miara/miarka, ukr. міра/ мірка with a clearly negative connotation “inaccuracy, bias”. Following the re-searcher of Slavic phraseology M. Teplyakov, who notices that the figurative meaning of these metrological PU, which emphasize the personal interest, usefulness and subjectivity of the person who makes the measurement. These PU also reflect an attempt to regulate, establish a common, unified for all, system of mea-sures, which does not allow any deviations (Teplyakov, 1985: p. 101). The historical memory of many generations of speakers summarized the simplest associative characteristics of words-realities, creating a fragment of the linguistic picture of the world, because at that time there was no unified system of measures and therefore for a long time metrological units were normalized.
Polish and Ukrainian metrological PU with metronym pol. Miara/miarka; ukr. міра/мірка are used to denote thrift: pol. ziarnko do ziarnka, zbierze się miarka/ ziarenko do ziarenko; ukr. зеренце до зеренця, то буде мірка where the name of the metrological unit measure is used figuratively “former metrological unit of grain weighing 16 - 25 kg”. These PU are used to denote a person’s positive attitude to saving money and are reinforced by the connotative feature “while saving you can make a large amount of money”. The peculiarity of these PU is that they use the name of a very small folk metrological unit in the diminutive form (пол. ziarenko, укр. зеренце) and the name of a fairly large amount of grain (пол. miarka, укр. мірка) which enhances the emotional expression.
On the figurative rethinking of the names of metrological units of volume and capacity of loose bodies and liquids in German and Ukrainian phraseology, PU are built, which figuratively convey the semantics of thrift: germ. Viele Körnlein (Körner) machen einen Haufen; Viele Stücke mehren den Haufen; ukr. зернинка до зернинки—назбирається торбинка; зернина до зернини—мішок буде/ назбирається мішок; зернинка до зернинки—от і ціла/повна мірка, як то кажуть. To enhance the imagery and emotional expression, the Germans use the nationally marked name of a large unit of indefinitely large volume: Haufen—a pile of “a large amount of something stacked, littered in a huge pile in one place; a mountain” (Hrinchenko, 1996), in Ukrainian—two smaller names of different capacity “a bag” a small pouch or a bagpack, sewn from a piece of coarse cloth container for storage and transportation of bulk bodies and various things, as well as a large paper bag for the same purpose” (Hrinchenko, 1996: Vol. 4, p .762). According to L.P. Smith, imagery and emotional expressions are needed in order to return the concept from pure abstraction to the sensations that gave rise to them, to embody them again in visual images and, above all, in the dynamic sensations of the human body (Smith, 1998: p. 172).
The peculiarity of the expression of this concept in English is that the other PU are used, engl. many a little makes a mickle; every mickle makes a muckle; every little helps, in the organization of which other imagery is involved, not related to the names of metrological units.
The speakers of the described languages focused, in their economic activity, on active interaction with neighboring ethnic groups, which, of course, affected the semantics of metrological phraseology of the studied languages, which is a vivid reflection of their way of thinking. This can be confirmed by the fact that the British, Germans, Poles and Ukrainians have a synonymous formula, which interprets the concept of “be appropriate, fit; to answer from all points of view, from certain points of view”. These are synonymous PU: eng. made to measure; germ. abgelumpt kaufen/nehmen; pol. (kupiony/zrobiony) na miarę; ukr. шитий/пошитий/ зроблений на міру/в міру; на міру купувати/взяти. They are used in a situation when talking about clothes or shoes that fit the size of a person. In the modern Polish language PU na miarę is used in another, more general meaning “meets the accepted standards”. For example: W zwierzyńcu pracował wielki tartak na miarę europejską (Wielki słownik języka polskiego, n.d.).
The use of these PU is an example of the fact that the semantics “are made to exact dimensions; by calculations” is implemented in the studied languages by synonymous PU and specified by the components: eng. to make; germ. abgelumpt; ukr. шитий, пошитий, зроблений. Synonymous PU are based on the same prototype associations (Ardelyan, 2009: p. 272). Probably in the past PU eng. made to measure; germ. abgelumpt kaufen/nehmen; pol. (kupiony/zrobiony) na miarę; ukr. шитий/пошитий/зроблений на міру/в міру; на міру купувати/ взятии had the same professional and industrial scope of use, but over time has acquired a metaphorical meaning. Using these PU, speakers go about “items of clothing or footwear specifically designed for a particular person”. Here is an example to illustrate the English PU: Jack has his suits made to measure because he’s rather large. Having clothes made to measure is rather expensive.
The phraseological material that is being studied suggests that speakers often resort to the innovative use of well-known metrological PU, thereby expanding their semantics and stylistic possibilities. This is an innovative Polish metrological PU with the component measure, which has often appeared on the pages of Polish periodicals and online publications in recent decades: pol. miara profesjonalizmu; hangar na miarę. For example: Nowy hangar to obiekt na miarę XXI wieku.
Ethical and cultural formulas of behavior in the four described languages preserved phraseology with a metronym англ. measure, нім. Messen/Maß, пол. miara, укр. Міра which revealed Latin origin. With a generalized meaning “standard, measure; it is important to adhere to the generally accepted norms and criteria of behavior in society” are used in PU which reveal the symmetry of semantics. This is PU: eng. to bind the sack before it is full; germ. Alles mit Maß; pol. Zacho-wywać miarę w czymś; ukr. в усьому знай міру. They come from Latin ne quid nimis. The etymological roots of these PU are explained by the fact that Latin has long been the language of educated people, the language of religion, science, education and culture, which has left its mark in the metrological phraseology of the described languages, and proves the fact that Latin is still part of the spiritual culture of native speakers of the described languages.
The synonymous PU germ. Alles hat sein Mass; germ. аllzu viel ist ungesund; pol. mieć miarę; ukr. мати міру; усе любить (свою) міру has a different figurative basis, also realizes the meaning “it is important to adhere to generally accepted norms and criteria of behavior in society”. The semantics of these synonymous PU encode rules of etiquette, which are key to outlining employment or decision-making. For example: Pracując przy warsztatach pracownicy naszego zawodu muszą zachowywać miarę w dotrzymaniu regulaminu ustalonego przez radę ubezpieczenia (Wielki słownik języka polskiego, n.d.). Probably, these synonymous PU were created in parallel, reflecting similar observations of human life, they are built on similar lexical material (Smith, 1998: pp. 88-90). These metrological PU have preserved their national imagery, which reflects the specifics of the figurative worldview of the speakers of the described languages (eng. lim, sack, full; germ. Mass, viel, ungesund; pol. miarа; ukr. міра).
With a synonymous meaning in the described metrological phraseology there are also variant-synonymous PU: eng. measure is a treasure; measure is as good as a feast; measure is a moderation in all things; germ. Allzu viel ist ungesund; ukr. всяку справу міра красить; міра понад усе; держи віру, держи й міру; що міра, то й віра; без міри нема віри which is used in the meaning “it is necessary to adhere to the generally accepted standards”. These synonymous PU reflect the generally accepted ethical formulas of behavior and etiquette, which form the basis of the moral and ethical standard of society. These synonymous PU reflect the generalized result of centuries-old comprehension by each language community of human existence and ethical values of society: “human faith is based on honesty and moral and ethical standards” (Smith, 1998: p. 407).
The studied metrological phraseology of the four languages reflects the moral and ethical values of society, which prevailed in the past, how the speakers of the four languages through the prism of ancient metric systems perceive the world and their existence in it. Therefore, the described metrological PU can serve as keys to understanding various aspects of the culture of native speakers.
To give negative characteristics of a lazy person, Germans, Poles and Ukrainians use synonymous PU: germ. Auch Faulenzen hat seine Grenzen; pol. lenistwo również ma swoją miarę/swoje środki; ukr. лінощі також мають свою міру which functions in the meaning “a very lazy person”, which are specified by nouns germ. Faulheit, pol. lenistwo, ukr. лінощі. With the studied metronym in four languages, there are other metrological PU that have synonymous semantics “not to go beyond the permission; behave without deviations from generally accepted standards” and somewhat different imagery. This is PU: eng. weіght and measures take away strіfe; germ. Mass und Ziel gibt das beste Spiel; Mässigkeit führt das Leben weit; pol. wszystko w miarę (i z umiarem); ukr. всяку справу міра красить; усьому /на все є міра; усьому потрібна міра; міра понад усе.
In addition, in Polish and Ukrainian languages such PU is used: pol. w miarę (coś trwa/coś zmieniło się); ukr. в міру which has a meaning “do not go beyond the permission; to behave without deviations from generally accepted standards” to characterize something that has gradually changed and not caused public condemnation. However, there are differences in the usage, in the semantic plan: pol. w miarę (coś trwa/coś zmieniło się) has another meaning—“accordingly”, i.e.: W miarę upływu czasu jego głos nabierał stanowczości, a ruchy stawały się pewniejsze (Palamarchuk, 1993: p. 181).
Synonymous PU also have a general meaning germ. Mass ist zu allen Dingen gut; ukr. міра—всякій справі віра, which emphasizes the need to comply with standards and generally accepted norms of behavior.
Spatial expressions eng. beyond measure; germ. unmäßig; pol. ponad miarę; ukr. понад міру/надмір convey different shades of meaning “many; too much; too much intensity”. In the lexicographic sources used in the research (W. Collins’ dictionary “A Book of English Idioms”; M. Nomys’s collection “Ukrainian proverbs and so on”; B. Hrinchenko’s dictionary “Dictionary of the Ukrainian language”) these statements are given one meaning: “in excessive quantities; excessively, beyond force; make too much mental or physical effort”. For example: They brought in hams, turkeys, and roasts, and then they brought vegetables and salads beyond measure. They thanked all of us beyond measure (The New Oxford Dictionary of English text, 1998: p. 726); Чув, що і так уже перебрав якусь мірку, пора була уже відпустити (Hrinchenko, 1958-1959: Vol. ІІ, p. 612). The Germans have another popular saying that means “in excessive numbers; excessively, beyond force”: germ. Maßlos; übermäßi; über die Maßen; man kann nicht über sich hinaus. Ukrainians use the synonymous expression with this meaning понад міру/понад себе і кінь не скочить (не цибне). The vivid imagery involved in the formation of those expressions encourages even more expressive thought.
The British, Germans, Poles and Ukrainians disapprove people who do not adhere to the generally accepted moral and ethical norms that are accepted in society, which is expressed by the following PU: eng. out of measure; germ. ohne Maß; pol. bez miary; ukr. без міри that have a meaning “go far beyond what is allowed”.
Observation of the peoples’ intentions and actions in regard of the moral and ethical norms of society is the basis of synonymous PU of English, German and Ukrainian languages: eng. to take the measure of his foot; to take the length of his foot; germ. das rechte Maß halten; germ. Maß halten which are used in the meaning “determine the limit of what is allowed; to know the limits of what is allowed”. Collins adds such a meaning “to learn how far you may venture with him; to find out the limits of his patience, generosity; accurately judge his character” (The New Oxford Dictionary of English text, 1998: p. 726).
Some metrological PU of German, Polish and Ukrainian languages are of wider importance: germ. das Maß übersteigen; pol. miarka się przebiera; ktoś przebrał/ przekroczył miarę; przebrała się/dopełniła się/przepełniła się miara czegoś (czy-jejś cierpliwości); ukr. перебрати міру/перебралася міра; переповнювати/ переповняти міру/чашу терпіння; переповнилась/перебралась міра and are used in the meaning “to make excessive efforts; deprive of opportunities and forces; to endure something”. For instance: Jesienią ubiegłego roku przebrała się miarka ich cierpliwosci i sprawę skierowali do sądu (Wielki słownik języka pols-kiego, n.d.). In the given Polish and Ukrainian PU the morphological forms of the verb component of the present and past tense vary in the perfect and imperfect form (się przebiera; przebrał/przekroczył; переповнювати/переповняти; пере-брати/перебралася). In addition, Polish and Ukrainian PU are marked by a richer synonymy of the verb component (pol. przebrać się/dopełnić się/przepełnić się; ukr. перебрати/переповнювати).
In the Ukrainian language, the semantics “exceed the permissible norm of something; exaggerate something” is more developed, because there are synonymous PUs, which are built on a different figurative basis: переходити/перейти межу; передати куті меду; взяти/перебрати через край; взяти лишку, and this allows Ukrainians to choose a figurative means according to a specific communicative situation. PUs have a more pragmatic orientation: Ger. alles Maß vergessen; Ukr. втратити почуття міри. The concept of “go beyond what is allowed” in the three studied languages, English, Polish and Ukrainian, is expressed by metrological PUs, among which only the Polish PU is built on the image of the metronym-common name miarа: Eng. the last straw; Pol. ostatnia kropla miary; Ukr. остання краплина/крапля терпіння. English and Ukrainian PU are built on an excellent figurative basis.
The perception of semantics in the paremias of three languages, which are synonymous, is different. They have an instructive meaning and are used with a more generalized meaning “you need to repay the debt on time; you need to pay in time”: Eng. weіght and measures take away strіfe; Ger. das Zählen tut der Liebe keinen Abbruch; Ukr. рахунок дружбі не завадить; частіше гроші рахувати, довше (міцніше) дружбу тримати. In English paremias metrological components are used—weіght, measures as criteria for calculation accuracy; in Ukrainians more emphasis is placed on the peculiarities of friendly relations as a value indicator of moral and ethical norms and mentality of Ukrainian society. The stylistic phonetic technique of poetic speech used in these paremias, such as rhyme (consonance of endings in adjacent and closely spaced words), is closely connected with rhythmic melodies and is a folk technique of their organization, which promotes their faster memorization and frequent use (Palamarchuk, 1993: p. 65).
With the help of metrological PU Pol. nie można zrobić żadną miarą; Ukr. жодною мірою representatives of the two languages, Poles and Ukrainians, interpret the concept of “under no circumstances; there is no way to execute /do/ allow”. Ex.: Zjawiły się osobistości, których żadną miarą nie mogłem nie przyjąć (Wielki słownik języka polskiego, n.d.); They do not let go of themselves in any way. Common name of metrological units Pol. miarа, Ukr. міра in these PU realizes the meaning of “a certain standard applied in specific life communicative situations”. To convey this concept, the Germans use the expression in keiner Weise, to the component composition of which the metrological component is not involved.
The British, Poles and Ukrainians have another PU to denote the concept “evaluate someone; know someone’s capabilities”—Eng. to take the measure of sb; Pol. urobić sobie opinię o kimś; Ukr. скласти собі про когось думку. In Polish and Ukrainian, to express the semantics of “evaluate someone; to know someone’s possibilities “uses non-English means of imagery—these are the components Pol. opiniа, Ukr. думка, through which semantics becomes more transparent.
In the studied metrological phraseology there are also single PU, which function only in one or two described languages and are on the periphery of the dictionary system. In the paremy fund of English and Ukrainian languages metrological PUs are recorded to indicate a biased attitude to such negative traits of women as excessive talkativeness and inaccuracy of expression. These are PU: Eng. ten measures of talk were sent from heaven, and women took nine; Ukr. з десяти мір балаканини, що були послані небесами, жінки взяли собі дев’ять.
There are also isolated PUs that function in only one of the analyzed languages and are on the periphery of its vocabulary system. Only Polish metrological phraseology is an expression Pol. ze wszech miar in the sense of “completely, from every point of view”: Propozycja pana odpowiada nam ze wszech miar. Jego opinia jest ze wszech miar słuszna (Dobrovolskii, 1997: p. 63).
German and Ukrainian folk phraseology are characterized by PU, which are on the periphery. To express the semantics, “it does not concern me personally; I don’t show myself” in German and Ukrainian there are expressions: Ger. das schlägt nicht in mein Gebiet; Ukr. не в мою міру сказано; не в мою міру міряючи. This expression is used in colloquial language and reflects the peculiarities of the mentality. The expression is used when they show the place of someone else’s disease on their body and warn them not to have the disease. Ex.: Аж отак, не в мою міру міряючи, рознесло йому щоку (Palamarchuk, 1993: Vol. I, p. 431).
With the metronym-common name measure in English metrological phraseology recorded PU full/short measure “more or less than the required or proposed quantity”, where the value of the component full is “sufficient, complete”, short “insufficient, small” is reinterpreted and affects the value of the PUs. This metrological PU is disclosed in the following example: I am sure the shopkeeper gave me short measure when she weighed out the potatoes; Lasting only 44 minutes, this PU is rather short measure (The New Oxford Dictionary of English text, 1998: p. 726).
Another English PU, measure of sth, which has two meanings: “content of something”; “A certain level”. These values of PU can be implemented in the following context: Words cannot always give the measure of one’s feelings (show how strong they are); She achieved some measure of success with her first book (The New Oxford Dictionary of English text, 1998: p. 726).
In metrological PU three languages Eng. to give good measure; Pol. zmierzyć kogoś/coś okiem/oczami/spojrzeniem/wzrokiem; Ukr. зміряти когось поглядом/ очима—semantics is formed by superimposing the direct “use general criteria for evaluation” and the figurative meaning “approximately estimate, measure”. In Eng. to give good measure the phrase good measure “to use generally accepted, standard evaluation criteria” is reinterpreted. In German, other linguistic means are used to express this concept: Ger. seinen Blick (in etw.) bohren, where the metronym-common name Messen/Maß is not used.
In the creation of the imagery of these PU the names of two metrological units are used: English generic common name Eng. measure and the national unit of approximate measurement of long distance Eng. eye, Pol. oko, Ukr. око in the figurative sense “everything that embraces the human eye”, which interact and, while rethinking, mutually reinforce the meaning, imagery and expressiveness of speech, characterizing emotional, excited speech and give speech expressiveness and energy (Smith, 1998: p. 163). The peculiarity of the functioning of the PU Eng. to give good measure is also the fact that it is part of a larger component, contamination. PU to give good measure a person with one’s eye, which means “to evaluate someone according to certain criteria”. German PU Ger. seinen Blick (in etw.) bohren uses other lexical units to express the concept “evaluate someone according to certain criteria”. On the rethought perception of the studied metronym in other synonymous PUs are actively used in the four described languages: Eng. to measure one’s length; Pol. upaść jak długi; Ger. beträchtlich/in vielerlei Hinsicht; in hochem grade; Pol. w dużej mierze; Ukr. великою мірою; Ger. in gleichem Maße, gleichermaßen, Pol. w równej mierze, Ukr. однаковою мірою; Ger. zu einem Großteil; beträchtlich, wesentlich, Pol. w znacznej mierze; Ukr. значною мірою (where gleichermaßen—equally; Großteil—most of it; beträchtlich, wesentlich—significantly intensify the statement).
Among those described, there are metrological PUs in three languages, German, Polish and Ukrainian, with the meaning “hopelessly apply intellectual or physical effort; the expected negative outcome of the case”. It’s Ger. da kannst du dich mit ihm nicht messen; Pol. nie masz się co mierzyć and Ukr. навіть і не мірятися, as well as the meaning “apply intellectual or physical effort to compare performance”: Ger. sich mit j-m meßen; Pol. mierzyć się z kimś and Ukr. мірятися з кимось.
In most of the analyzed metrological PU metronym is a common name Eng. measure, Ger. Messen/Maß, Pol. miara, Ukr. міра/мірка retains the nominative, direct meaning of “measure”, their semantics convey the pragmatic attitude of speakers to the inaccuracy of the former means of measurement, which normalized for a long time. In four languages, PUs with the studied metronym implement the meanings that, as a result of rethinking, have been assigned to them by the speakers of the four languages. And this confirms the idea that the phraseology of each language is a unique result of the collective centuries-old work of the language community on the understanding of human existence.
Study of linguoculturological parameters of semantics of metrological PU with metronym-common name Eng. measure, Ger. Messen/Maß, Pol. miara, Ukr. міра/ мірка in English, German, Polish and Ukrainian allowed to compare fragments of four phraseological pictures of the world and confirm the assertion that phraseology is part of the language fund, which reflects cultural and historical interactions, is characterized by broad interlanguage parallels and reveals the national identity of native speakers. Figure 1 summarizes the features of linguistic and cultural semantics of metrological PUs with a metronym-common name Eng. measure, Ger. Messen/Maß, Pol. miara/miarka, Ukr. міра/мірка.
Figure 1. features the linguoculturological parameters of semantics of metrological PUs with metronym-common name Eng. measure, Ger. Messen/Maß, Pol. miara/miarka, Ukr. міра/мірка.
Description of linguoculturological parameters of PU’s semantics with metronym-common name Eng. measure, Ger. Messen/Maß, Pol. miara, Ukr. міра/ мірка proves that more often synonymous connections are found, antonyms occur less often (Bilodid, 1971-1989: Vol. IV, p. 692). In the studied languages there are also single metrological PU with a metronym-common name, which are on the periphery of the phraseological system; they are used by speakers in isolated cases. The semantics of metrological PUs with a metronym-common name reflects the pragmatic experience of speakers, concerning the inaccuracies of measurement systems to the introduction of a single metric system of weights and measures. The vast majority rethought the metronym-common name Eng. measure, Ger. Messen/Maß, Pol. miara, Ukr. міра/мірка is a figurative indicator of phraseological meaning.
In the studied languages the metrological phraseology with a metronym-common name Eng. measure, Ger. Messen/Maß, Pol. miara/miarka, Ukr. міра/мірка is presented unevenly, which is explained by the unequal distribution of the metronyms-realities and their figurative perception in English, German, Polish and Ukrainian.
Analysis of the linguistic and cultural features of the semantics of metrological PU revealed that they are largely based on a metaphorical rethinking of the communicative situation and perform a figurative, expressive function. They are a kind of mini-models of the results of figurative activity and reflect the way of thinking of native speakers about the world. The semantics of metrological PU reflected the way of thinking of native speakers, who in their economic activities are focused on active interaction with neighboring peoples.
Linguocultural semantics of metrological PUs with a component—common name Eng. measure, Ger. Messen/Maß, Pol. miara/miarka, Ukr. міра/мірка reflects various spheres of peoples life, their history, culture, social relations, production activities, moral and ethical norms, views and beliefs, it reflects a special “language code” and perception of the world.
The study of factual material reveals that the etymological source of metrological PUs are the Bible, Latin, trade relations, the ancient paremia fund:
a number of PUs dates back to the times when linear measures, measures of volume and capacity of bulk bodies and liquids were inaccurate, and merchants, given the proximity of these measures, tried to use a measure favorable to them (arshin or elbow), depending on whether they bought goods or sold. Native speakers have retained the stereotype of using metronyms-realities with a clearly negative connotation “inaccuracy, bias”;
the etymological source of some metrological PUs is the ancient European heritage, namely the Latin language, which for centuries was the language of educated people, the language of science, education and culture, which left its mark in the described languages andis part of the spiritual culture of speakers of four languages (“to be appropriate, to answer accurately; to answer from all points of view, from certain points of view”);
the ancient paremia fund is an indicative etymological source of metrological PU to indicate a negative attitude to such traits of women as excessive talk-ativeness and inaccuracy of expression.
The studied metrological phraseology in more than 80% reveals synonymous and variant-synonymous relations, which, obviously, is evidence of a common genetic root and way of worldview of native speakers. This can be confirmed by the fact that in four languages there are synonymous formulas for the interpretation of moral and cultural norms, formulas of behavior and etiquette that form the basis of every society.
Metrological PUs of the four studied languages demonstrate the symmetry of linguo-cultural parameters of semantics. Probably, some metrological PUs were created in these languages in parallel, reflecting similar observations of human life, and therefore they are built on similar lexical material. English, German, Polish and Ukrainian metrological PUs with components-species names to denote linear units more often enter into synonymous and variant-synonymous connections, antonyms occur less often. Among the described metrological PUs there are also single PUs that form the periphery of the phraseological system of the four described languages.
4. Conclusion
The studied metrological phraseology in more than 80% reveals synonymous and variant-synonymous relations, which, obviously, is evidence of a common genetic root and way of worldview of native speakers. This can be confirmed by the fact that in four languages there are synonymous formulas for the interpretation of moral and cultural norms, formulas of behavior and etiquette that form the basis of every society.
Metrological PUs of the four studied languages demonstrate the symmetry of linguo-cultural parameters of semantics. Probably, some metrological PUs were created in these languages in parallel, reflecting similar observations of human life, and therefore they are built on similar lexical material. English, German, Polish and Ukrainian metrological PUs with components-species names to denote linear units more often enter into synonymous and variant-synonymous connections, antonyms occur less often. Among the described metrological PUs there are also single PUs that form the periphery of the phraseological system of the four described languages.