A Study of Perfectionism, Strain, Grit, and Well-Being among the Employees of Precision Casting ()
1. Introduction
Historically, early workaholics were lauded as role models of industriousness within corporate settings, particularly in manufacturing industries such as precision parts. There was a belief that employees demonstrating strong work ethics contributed significantly to industry values, fostering feelings of self-worth and self-esteem (van Beek, Taris, Schaufeli, & Brenninkmeijer, 2014) . However, recent insights into serious psychological issues have prompted a redefined of workaholism. It is now defined as an uncontrollable compulsion to work incessantly, characterized by excessive and compulsive labor (Schaufeli, Taris, & van Rhenen, 2008) . Clark et al. (2016) indicated that workaholism is linked to various negative outcomes, including burnout, job stress, work-life conflict, and declining physical and mental health. It is increasingly viewed as an addiction to work, exerting detrimental effects on individuals, interpersonal relationships, and organizational dynamics. Hence, workaholism is no longer a desirable trait for employees in manufacturing industries.
Furthermore, Falco et al. (2017) showed that perfectionism is positively associated with workaholism since some factors within perfectionism, such as personal and situational variables, may contributed to the development of workaholism. Additionally, Spence and Robbins (1992) found that perfectionism positively correlated with three aspects of being driven to work: work involvement and enjoyment of work. The aspect of being driven to work is indicative of workaholism. Specifically, Stoeber, Davis, and Townley (2013) found that, unlike socially prescribed perfectionism, self-oriented perfectionism positively correlated with workaholism, with employees high in self-oriented perfectionism showing higher levels of workaholism compared to those low in self-oriented perfectionism. This finding supported Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) observation that self-oriented perfectionism was often “workaholic”, whereas socially prescribed perfectionism was not. Stoeber, Davis, and Townley (2013) ultimately concluded that high levels of work motivation explained why many self-oriented perfectionists were workaholics. Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality disposition (Cox, Enns, & Clara, 2002; Flett & Hewitt, 2006) , yet no universally accepted definition of perfectionism exists (Flett & Hewitt, 2006) . However, one of the most influential models for perfectionism was developed by Hewitt and Flett (1991) . Perfectionism is often characterized as an achievement-based behavioral characteristic involving the establishment of high standards of performance associated with overly critical evaluations of one’s behavior and fear of negative evaluations by others (Flett & Hewitt, 2006; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990) . This present study applied the delineation of positive perfectionism (PP) and negative perfectionism (NP) as the theoretical framework by Kung and Chan (2014) , which originated from the dual model of perfectionism by Slade and Owens (1998) . Slade and Owens (1998) delineate PP as encompassing cognitions and behaviors oriented towards achieving high-level goals and a desire for success, while NP is characterized by a fear of failure.
Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality characteristic encompassing both positive/healthy (the tendency to strive towards perfection) and negative/unhealthy (the tendency to evaluate the self in a critical manner) dispositions (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990) . Perfectionism has been shown to effectively predict occupational stress (Kung & Chan, 2014) and directly impact well-being (Levine & Milyavskaya, 2018) . Recent research also indicated that perfectionism predicts grit among college student-athletes (Cormier, Dunn, Dunn, & Rumbold, 2019) . Additionally, grit has been found to be directly (Jiang, Jiang, Du, Gu, Sun, Zhang, 2019) or indirectly (Jin & Kim, 2017) associated with subjective well-being. Setting high personal standards, known as self-oriented perfectionism, and the perception of consistently falling short of these standards, or the belief that others impose high standards on oneself, are linked to psychological distress and negative outcomes such as depressive symptoms, fear of negative evaluation, and negative affect (Van Yperen, Verbraak, & Spoor, 2011) . Although Childs and Stoeber (2012) noted that perfectionism was related to higher levels of burnout, the multidimensions of perfectionism were not examined. Furthermore, Chang, Chou, Liou, and Tu (2016) clarified that positive perfectionism (healthy perfectionism) was positively correlated with innovative behavior, whereas negative perfectionism (unhealthy perfectionism) was positively correlated with job burnout. Moreover, Kung and Chan (2014) investigated the differential roles of perfectionism in predicting occupational stress by inviting 156 university employees to complete self-reported questionnaires. They revealed that higher positive perfectionism predicted greater vigor and lower vocational and physical strain, while higher negative perfectionism predicted less vigor and greater vocational, psychological, interpersonal, and physical strain. Therefore, they suggested that PANPS can be used to identify PP and NP levels among employees, and the PSQ can also be used to assess occupational eustress and distress.
The impact of perfectionism on individuals can be positive or negative, depending on its underlying dimensions. As mentioned above, perfectionism has two different dimensions, which are positive and negative, and can conduce to the opposite consequences. Adaptive perfectionism fosters a sense of well-being, while maladaptive perfectionism may have adverse effects on individuals’ well-being (David et al., 2006) . For instance, Li, Lan, and Ju (2015) found a positive correlation between perfectionism and subjective well-being among Chinese university students. Similarly, Levine and Milyavskaya (2018) , discovered that personal standard perfectionism (positive perfectionism) was associated with greater well-being and lower depression compared to domain-level personal standard perfectionism (negative perfectionism). Furthermore, Suh, Gnilka, and Rics (2017) conducted a comprehensive study examining the relationship between perfectionism and various aspects of well-being. They concluded that adaptive perfectionism (positive perfectionism) had higher levels of presence of meaning in life, subjective happiness, and life satisfaction (Suh et al., 2017) .
Moreover, recent research by Dunn et al. (2021) found that positive perfectionism, characterized by a desire for success, is positively associated with grit. This suggests that individuals with high levels of positive perfectionism are more likely to demonstrate perseverance and consistency in their efforts. Conversely, negative perfectionism, characterized by a fear of failure, is negatively associated with grit, indicating that individuals with high levels of negative perfectionism may struggle with maintaining consistent interests and effort. Grit, distinct from several related personality traits, is one of the individual characteristics that refer to an individual’s ability to maintain effort and passion over time in pursuit of long-term goals (Duckworth et al., 2007; Li, Lin, Ahzo, Chem, & Wang, 2018) . One of the most significant studies on grit was conducted by Duckworth et al. (2019) , which involved participants from West Point Academy over a four-year research period. They found that noncognitive attributes such as physical ability and grit were more predictive of achievement outcomes, including successful completion of initial training and four-year graduation, compared to cognitive ability, which predicted academic and military grades but was negatively related to physical ability and grit. Recent research has increasingly focused on the influences of grit. For instance, Li et al. (2018) investigated how grit can predict subjective well-being. They found that higher levels of grit were associated with higher levels of life satisfaction, more positive affect, and less negative affect. Jiang et al. (2019) further emphasized the potential of striving and perseverance in goal pursuit as indicators of healthy functioning, with grit playing a crucial role in predicting subjective well-being.
No empirical research has directly tested the proposed model describing the relationship between perfectionism, strain, grit, and well-being, particularly among employees from the manufacturing industries. This study aimed to expand on previous research by examining the relationships among positive perfectionism, negative perfectionism, vocational strain, psychological strain, interpersonal strain, physical strain, satisfaction with life, positive affect, and negative affect. Additionally, the study explored whether perfectionism and grit can predict strains and well-being. Importantly, the Job Demand-Resources (JD-R) model is integrated in this study, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underlying these relationships. The JD-R model posits that job characteristics can be divided into two broad categories: job demands and job resources (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Demerouti et al., 2001) . Job demands refer to the physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of a job that require sustained effort and are associated with certain physiological and psychological costs. Job resources refer to the physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the job that help achieve work goals, reduce job demands and the associated physiological and psychological costs, and stimulate personal growth and development. Applying the JD-R model to perfectionism and grit, negative perfectionism can be conceptualized as a job demand, increasing pressure and strain due to unrealistic standards and excessive self-criticism, while positive perfectionism and grit can be seen as job resources, enhancing motivation, engagement, and resilience, which help reduce strain and improve well-being. Understanding how these dimensions of perfectionism and grit interact with job demands and resources allows for a better appreciation of their impact on employee outcomes.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
The study conducted within a 30-year-old precision casting company in Taiwan region ensured transparent and replicable participant selection. The company’s general secretary was the liaison, inviting all 100 employees to participate. Criteria included employee status, requiring voluntary informed consent. Invitations were distributed via internal channels, and the researcher outlined the study objectives and procedures. Interested employees accessed the Google online survey system from February 01 to March 03, 2024. They completed the questionnaire at their convenience and were encouraged to respond honestly. Overall, 98 employees completed the questionnaire (98% response rate), including 54 males (Mage = 32.13 ± 14.14; Mworking years = 10.66 ± 10.90) and 44 females (Mage = 40.27 ± 10.35; Mworking years = 11.17 ± 10.59).
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Perfectionism
This study uses the 40 item Positive and Negative Perfectionism Scales (PANPS) based on the research from Kung and Chan (2014) to assess participants’ levels of positive and negative perfectionism. PANPS has 20 items for each, and all items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher scores indicate higher levels of perfectionism. In this present sample, PP (α = .96) and NP (α = .90) showed high internal consistency. (See Appendix)
2.2.2. Strain
Osipow (1998) revised the Occupational Stress Inventory to a 40-item Personal Strain Questionnaire (PSQ) to examine strain, in other words, occupational stress. PSQ has four subscales and includes vocational, psychological, interpersonal, and physical strain, 10 items for each subscale. Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (rarely or never true) to 5 (true most of the time), and subscale scores are sums of the respective subscale item ratings. Higher scores show greater strain. All four subscales demonstrated satisfactory consistency in this study (Vocational Strain α = .77, Psychological Strain α = .92, Interpersonal Strain α = .83, Physical Strain α = .78).
2.2.3. Grit
Duckworth and Quinn (2009) developed an 8-item Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) to measure the levels of grit. There are two factors for Grit-S: one is the consistency of interest, and the other is the perseverance of effort. Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale, item 2, 4, 7, and 8 are rated from 1 (not like me at all) to 5 (very much like me); however, items 1, 3, 5, and 6 are rated from 1 (very much like me) to 5 (not like me at all). The calculation for Grit-S is to add up all the points and divide by 8, and higher scores indicate a higher level of overall grit. According to Li et al. (2018) , this study uses only the total score of Grit-S to index grit. This study showed a fair internal consistency in Grit-S with α = .68
2.2.4. Well-Being
In the research, Levine and Milyavskaya (2018) used a combination of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) as the measurement of well-being. Consequently, the present study follows their design and uses the combination scales to test well-being. The Scale of Positive and Negative Affect has 9 items, including 5 items for negative affect and 4 items for positive affect, and each item is rated on a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very). Additionally, SWLS has 5 items, and each item is rated on a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Hence, the calculation for well-being scores is to average positive affect, reverse-scores negative effect, and SWLS. This study provided higher internal consistencies for positive affect (α= .94), negative affect (α= .92), and SWLS (α= .91).
2.3. Data Collection
The researchers have provided a detailed explanation of the study, including its objectives, methods, benefits, risks, and the rights of participants. They have encouraged voluntary participation from interested individuals. An online questionnaire has been developed using Google Forms, which the participants can conveniently fill out. Each participant is required to read and agree to the participant agreement, followed by an explanatory statement and an informed consent form, before proceeding to the online survey. Based on the company’s general secretary’s suggestion, the socio-demographic characteristics section had only three questions, including gender, age, and working years.
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
Mean, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients for all variables are included in Table 1. When bivariate correlations were examined, positive perfectionism showed strong positive relationships with satisfaction with life (r = .662, p = .000), and positive affect (r = .718, p = .000), while negative perfectionism had weak positive relationships with these two variables (r = .205, p = .043; r = .342, p = .001). Negative perfectionism also had a positive relationship with negative affect (r = .329, p = .001). As regards four strain dimensions, negative perfectionism indicated positive relationships with vocational strain (r = .298, p = .003), psychological strain (r = .272, p = .007), interpersonal strain (r = .367, p = .000), and physical strain (r = .378, p = .000). As expected, grit was positive associated with positive perfectionism (r = .507, p = .000), satisfaction with life (r = .492, p = .000), and positive affect (r = .468, p = .000), but negative associated with negative affect (r = −.367, p = .000), vocational strain (r = −.391, p = .000), psychological strain (r = −.508, p = .000), interpersonal strain (r = −.430, p = .000), and physical strain (r = −.457, p = .000).
3.2. Stepwise Multiple Regression Statistics
Table 2 summarized the stepwise multiple regression statistics when grit, positive perfectionism, and negative perfectionism were entered as the predictors, and four variables of strain and three variables of well-being were the outcomes. The results indicated that increased positive perfectionism significantly predicted higher vocational strain (β = .348, p = .001), satisfaction with life (β = .555, p = .000), and positive affect (β = .718, p = .000). However, positive perfectionism did not predict psychological strain, interpersonal strain, physical strain, and negative affect. In contrast, increased negative perfectionism predicted higher vocational strain (β = .215, p = .020), psychological strain (β = .313, p = .000), interpersonal strain (β = .403, p = .000), physical strain (β = .417, p = .000), and negative affect (β = .360, p = .000). Most importantly, increased grit significantly predicted lower vocational strain (β = −.584, p = .000), psychological strain (β = −.533, p = .000), interpersonal strain (β = −.462, p = .000), physical strain (β = −.490, p = .000), and negative affect (β = −.395, p = .000), and higher satisfaction with life (β = .211, p = .017).
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Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations.
*p < .05; ** p < .01.
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Table 2. Summary of stepwise multiple regression predicting strain and subject-well-being by grit, PP, and NP.
4. Discussion
Expanding on previous research on perfectionism, strain, and well-being, this study found that the employees of Precision Cast Parts revealed tendencies toward both positive and negative perfectionism, albeit with a slightly higher prevalence of positive perfectionism. This study provided empirical evidence supporting the distinct predictive roles of positive and negative perfectionism on strain, consistent with findings by Kung and Chan (2014) . Interestingly, the employees demonstrating a higher inclination towards positive perfectionism, characterized by setting ambitious goals and a desire for success, exhibited greater vocational strain—a departure from previous research (Kung & Chan, 2014) . These employees have stronger characteristics of positive perfectionism to achieve higher-level goals, which causes them higher-level vocational strain. Conversely, individuals with a propensity for negative perfectionism, marked by excessive efforts to avoid failure, were susceptible to vocational, psychological, interpersonal, and physical strains. The results align with previous studies (Kung & Chan, 2014; Dittner, Rimes, & Thorpe, 2011) , suggesting that the fear of failure among negative perfectionists may trigger maladaptive coping responses, leading to adverse outcomes such as psychological and physical strains, as well as vocational and interpersonal strains.
Incorporating the Job Demand-Resources (JD-R) model into this framework provides a more comprehensive understanding of these dynamics. In this context, negative perfectionism can be conceptualized as a job demand, increasing pressure and strain due to unrealistic standards and excessive self-criticism. Conversely, positive perfectionism and grit can be seen as job resources, enhancing motivation, engagement, and resilience, which help reduce strain and improve well-being.
Furthermore, expanding on previous research on perfectionism and well-being (Stoeber, Lalova, & Lumley, 2020) , this study found that positive perfectionism predicted satisfaction with life and positive affect, while negative perfectionism predicted negative affect. In accordance with past research on the relationship between perfectionism and grit, this study supported that grit plays a significant role in the association with perfectionism (Dunn, Cormier, Kono, Dunn, & Rumbold, 2021) . However, no significant association was found between grit and negative perfectionism in this study. It is possible that employees at Precision Cast Parts, with an average of 10 years of work experience, maintain high levels of grit to fulfill their daily duties with reduced fear of failure in the workplace. Additionally, this study supported the effect of grit on negative outcomes such as depression (Zhang, Liu, & Wang, 2021) and burnout (Gray et al., 2023) . Employees at Precision Cast Parts with higher levels of grit exhibit greater resilience in handling negative affect and vocational, psychological, interpersonal, and physical strains, showcasing their capacity to balance daily life and work responsibilities effectively.
5. Limitations and Future Directions
Several limitations should be noted when interpreting the current results. First, the cross-sectional data lacks precision when drawing causal relationships, which could be improved using longitudinal or mixed designs. Additionally, while this study highlighted the roles of perfectionism and grit, it did not examine the broader organizational factors or job characteristics that could influence these constructs. Future research should investigate how specific job demands and resources, such as workload, autonomy, and social support, interact with perfectionism and grit. These factors could serve as moderating or mediating variables, offering a more nuanced understanding of their impact on strain and well-being. Furthermore, perfectionism and grit could act as predictors of mental health problems and risks. Future research should determine whether grit moderates the relationships between the two dimensions of perfectionism and outcomes in strain and well-being. Finally, one methodological limitation is that workplace situations, such as stressors and workload cycles, were not examined. Future research can investigate and control for the type and severity of stressors and should note the effect of workload cycles.
6. Conclusion
Through the examination of the direct effects of the two dimensions of perfectionism and grit on strains and well-being, several conclusions were drawn. Firstly, positive perfectionism can potentially contribute to well-being, while negative perfectionism can increase the risk of vocational, psychological, interpersonal, and physical strains. Furthermore, grit can significantly mitigate negative outcomes, including vocational, psychological, interpersonal, and physical strains, and negative affect, thereby increasing satisfaction with life. Incorporating the Job Demand-Resources model into future research could provide a more comprehensive understanding of how job demands and resources interact with personal characteristics like perfectionism and grit, ultimately influencing employee well-being and strain. This approach underscores the importance of fostering adaptive perfectionism and grit to balance job demands and resources, promoting well-being and reducing strain in the workplace.
Appendix
Positive and Negative Perfectionism Scales (PANPS)
1) When I start something I feel anxious that I might fail.
2) My family and friends are proud of me when I do really well.
3) I take pride in being meticulous when doing things.
4) I set impossibly high standards for myself.
5) I try to avoid the disapproval of others at all costs.
6) I like the acclaim I get for an outstanding performance.
7) When I am doing something I cannot relax until it’s perfect.
8) It feels as though my best is never good enough for other people.
9) Producing a perfect performance is a reward in its own right.
10) The problem of success is that I must work even harder.
11) If I make a mistake I feel that the whole thing is ruined.
12) I feel dissatisfied with myself unless I am working towards a higher standard all the time.
13) I know the kind of person I ought or want to be, but feel I always fall short of this.
14) Other people respect me for my achievements.
15) As a child however well I did, it never seemed good enough to please my parents.
16) I think everyone loves a winner.
17) Other people expect nothing less than perfection of me.
18) When I’m competing against others, I’m motivated by wanting to be the best.
19) I feel good when pushing out the limits.
20) When I achieve my goals I feel dissatisfied.
21) My high standards are admired by others.
22) If I fail people, I fear they will cease to respect or care for me.
23) I like to please other people by being successful.
24) I gain great approval from others by the quality of my accomplishments.
25) My successes spur me on to greater achievements.
26) I feel guilty or ashamed if I do less than perfectly.
27) No matter how well I do I never feel satisfied with my performance.
28) I believe that rigorous practice makes for perfection.
29) I enjoy the glory gained by successes.
30) I gain deep satisfaction when I have perfected something.
31) I feel I have to be perfect to gain people’s approval.
32) My parents encouraged me to excel.
33) I worry what others think if I make mistakes.
34) I get fulfilment from totally dedicating myself to a task.
35) I like it when others recognized that what I do requires great skill and effort to perfect.
36) The better I do, the better I am expected to do by others.
37) I enjoy working towards greater levels of precision and accuracy.
38) I would rather not start something than risk doing it less than perfectly.
39) When I do things I feel others will judge critically the standard of my work.
40) I like the challenge of setting very high standards for myself.
Personal Strain Questionnaire (PSQ)
1) I don’t seem to be able to get much done at work.
2) Lately, I dread going to work.
3) I am bored with my work.
4) I find myself getting behind in my work, lately.
5) I have accidents on the job of late.
6) The quality of my work is good.
7) Recently, I have been absent from work.
8) I find my work interesting and/or exciting.
9) I can concentrate on the things I need to at work.
10) I make errors or mistakes in my work.
11) Lately, I am easily irritated.
12) Lately, I have been depressed.
13) Lately, I have been felling anxious.
14) I have been happy, lately.
15) So many thoughts run through my head at night that I have trouble falling asleep.
16) Lately, I respond badly in situations that normally wouldn’t bother me.
17) I find myself complaining about little things.
18) Lately, I have been worrying.
19) I have a good sense of humor.
20) Things are going about as they should.
21) I wish I had more time to spend with close friends.
22) I often quarrel with the person closest to me.
23) I often argue with friends.
24) My spouse and I are happy together.
25) Lately, I do things by myself instead of with other people.
26) I quarrel with members of the family.
27) Lately, my relationships with people are good.
28) I find that I need time to myself to work out my problems.
29) Lately, I am worried about how others at work view me.
30) I have been withdrawing from people lately.
31) I have unplanned weight gains.
32) My eating habits are erratic.
33) I find myself drinking a lot lately.
34) Lately, I have been tired.
35) I have been feeling tense.
36) I have trouble falling and staying asleep.
37) I have aches and pains I can not explain.
38) I eat the wrong foods.
39) I feel well.
40) I have lots of energy lately.
Short Grit Scale (Grit-S)
1) New ideas and projects sometimes distract me from previous ones.
2) Setbacks don’t discourage me. I don’t give up easily.
3) I often set a goal but later choose to pursue a different one.
4) I am a hard worker.
5) I have difficulty maintaining my focus on projects that take more than a few months to complete.
6) I finish whatever I begin.
7) My interests change from year to year.
8) I am diligent. I never give up.
9) I have been obsessed with a certain idea or project for a short time but later lost interest.
10) I have overcome setbacks to conquer an important challenge.
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)
1) In most ways my life is close to my ideal.
2) The conditions of my life are excellent.
3) I am satisfied with my life.
4) So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.
5) If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.
Scale of Positive and Negative Affect
joyful
unhappy
worried/anxious
enjoyment/fun
depressed
pleased
happy
angry/hostile
frustrated