Assessment of Lindane and Atrazine Residues in Maize Produced in Ghana Using Gas Chromatography-Electron Capture Detector (GC-ECD) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)

Elvis D. Miensah^1*, Joseph R. Fianko^1,2, Sam Adu-Kumi³

¹School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana.
²NNRI/GAEC, Accra, Ghana.
³Chemicals Control and Management Centre, Environmental Protection Agency, Accra, Ghana.

DOI: 10.4236/jep.2015.610097                

Abstract

Maize is consumed by over 95% of the Ghanaian populace and the practice of using Atrazine and Lindane (an Organochlorine) pesticides in its production has raised concerns about potential adverse effects on human health and the environment. A field survey was conducted in this study to assess farmers’ knowledge of safe handling and use of these chemicals as well as toxicity awareness and symptoms among farmers and traders. Residues of these pesticides in maize samples as well as the potential health risk associated with exposure to them were also evaluated. Composite maize samples were collected for nine of ten regions in Ghana and analyzed. Data obtained from the field survey indicate that a large proportion of farmers are at risk of pesticide poisoning through occupational exposure. Over 80% of applicators do not apply safety precautions during pesticide mixing and application; resulting in considerable prevalence of pesticide related illnesses in the study area. Residues of Lindane and atrazine were below detection limits of 0.005 mg/kg and 0.010 mg/kg respectively; except in the Ashanti region where atrazine was 0.05 mg/kg which was within the EU-MRL of 0.1 mg/kg. However, minute concentrations of other Organochlorines (endrin—0.007 mg/kg; heptachlor—0.023 mg/kg; alpha-endosulfan—0.013 mg/kg) were found in maize samples from Brong Ahafo, eastern, central and upper west regions. Though endrin and alpha-endosulfan were below the EU-MRL of 0.01 mg/kg and 0.10 mg/kg respectively, heptachlor was slightly above the EU-MRL of 0.01 mg/kg. The estimated dose for all these pesticides however does not pose direct hazard to human health although present in the maize samples since the values were lower than toxic thresholds and reference doses. However, due to the unsafe application practices by applicators, there exists a potential risk for systemic and carcinogenic health effects by these chemicals in the study area.

Keywords

Ghana, Lindane, Atrazine, Organochlorines, Health Risk

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	Onwueme, I.C. and Sinha, T.D. (1991) Field Crop Production in Tropical Africa (Principles and Practice). Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co-Operation CTA, Ede, Wageningen.
[2]	Yayock, J.Y., Lombin, G., Owonubi, J.J. and Onazi, O.C. (1988) Crop Science and Production in Warm Climates. Macmillan Publishers, London, 133-138.
[3]	MOFA (2011) Raw Data on Production, Area Cultivated and Yield on Various Crops. MOFA, Accra.
[4]	FAO (2008) Statistical Databases. FAOSTAT: Agriculture Data. http://faostat.fao.org
[5]	Morris, M.L., Tripp, R. and Dankyi, A.A. (1999) Adoption and Impacts of Improved Maize Production Technology. A Case Study of the Ghana Grains Development Project, Economics Program Paper 99-01. CIMMYT, Mexico DF.
[6]	SARI (1996) Savanna Agricultural Research Institute. Annual Report.
[7]	MOFA (2001) Profile of District Agricultural Development in Ejisu-Juaben District. Technical Document. Accra, 1, 8.
[8]	Muhammad, A. (1979) Effect of Various Herbicides on the Growth and Yield of Maize Varieties. Weed Absts, 28.
[9]	Edwards, C.A. (1986) Agrochemicals as Environmental Pollutants. In: Van Hofsten, B. and Eckstrom, G., Eds., Control of Pesticide Applications and Residues in Food. A Guide and Directory. Swedish Science Press, Uppsala.
[10]	Fianko, J.R., Donkor, A., Lowor, S.T., Yeboah, P.O., Glover, E.T., Adom, T. and Faanu, A. (2011) Health Risk Associated with Pesticide Contamination of Fish from the Densu River Basin Ghana. Journal of Environmental Protection, 2, 115-123. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2011.22013
[11]	O’Neil, M.J. (2001) The Merck Index an Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biological. 13th Edition, Whitehouse Station, New Jersey.
[12]	Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), 2004.
[13]	Ntow, W.J., Gijzen, H.J., Kelderman, P. and Drechsel, P. (2006) Farmer Perceptions and Pesticide Use in Vegetable Production in Ghana. Pest Management Science, 62, 356-365. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ps.1178
[14]	UNEP/ILO/WHO (1994) International Programme on Chemical Safety. The WHO Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard and Guidelines to Classification.
[15]	Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), 2009.
[16]	International Agency for Research on Cancer, IARC (1987) Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans Supplement 7 (1987). Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity: An Updating of IARC Monographs Volumes 1 to 42.
[17]	USFDA (2003) Centers for Drug Evaluation and Research. Lindane Lotion and Lindane Shampoo Questions and Answers. http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm110848.htm
[18]	Alvarez-Pedrerol, M., Ribas-Fitó, N., Torrent, M., et al. (2008) Thyroid Disruption at Birth Due to Prenatal Exposure to Beta-Hexachlorocyclohexane. Environment International, 34, 737-740.
[19]	Bridges, D.C. (1994) Impact of Weeds on Human Endeavour. Weed Technology, 8, 392-395.
[20]	Miller, T.W. and Libby, C.R. (1999) Response of Three Corn Cultivars to Several Herbicides. Research Progress Report of the Western Society of Weed Science, 155, 88-95.
[21]	Becker, B.L. and Staniforth, D.W. (1981) Cost-Benefits Assessment Herbicide Use. Proceedings of the North Central Weed Control Conference, 36, 68-71.
[22]	Jehangeri, G., Sahibzada, Q.A. and Bashir, M. (1984) Effect of Selective Herbicides on Yield of Maize Frontier. Journal of Agricultural Research, 10, 67-76.
[23]	Cox, C. (2001) Herbicide Factsheet, Atrazine: Environmental Contamination and Ecological Effects. Journal of Pesticide Reform, 21.
[24]	Hayes, T., Haston, K., Tsui, M., et al. (2002) Feminization of Male Frogs in the Wild. Nature, 419, 895-896. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/419895a
[25]	Ntow, W.J. (2001) Organochlorine Pesticides in Water, Sediment, Crops, and Human Fluids in a Farming Community in Ghana. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 40, 557-563. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002440010210
[26]	Aboagye, E. (2002) Pattern of Pesticides Use and Residue Levels in Exportable Pineapple (Ananas cosmosus L. Merr). Master’s Thesis, University of Ghana, Legon.
[27]	Amoah, P., Drechsel, P., Abaidoo, R.C. and Ntow, W.J. (2006) Pesticides and Pathogen Contamination of Vegetables in Ghana’s Urban Markets. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 50, 1-6.
[28]	Adu-Kumi, S., Kawano, M., Shiki, Y., Yeboah, P.O., Carboo, D., Pwamang, J., Morita, M. and Suzuki, N (2010) Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs), Dioxin-Like Polychlorinated Biphenyls (di-PCBs), Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Polychlorinated Dibenzo Furans (PCDD/Fs) in Edible Fish from Lake Volta, Lake Bosumtwi and Weija Lake in Ghana. Chemosphere, 81, 675-684. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.08.018
[29]	Mensah, F.O., Yeboah, F.A. and Akman, M. (2004) Survey of the Effect of Aerosol Pesticide Usage on the Health of Farmers in the Akomadan and Afrancho Farming Community. Journal of the Ghana Science Association, 6, 44-48.
[30]	Osafo, A.S. and Frempong, E. (1998) Lindan and Endosulfan Residues in Water and Fish in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Journal of the Ghana Science Association, 1, 135-140.
[31]	Wilson, P.C., Boman, B. and Foos, J.F. (2007) Norflurazon and Simazine Losses in Surface Runoff from Flatwoods Citrus Production Areas. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 78, 341-344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00128-007-9202-y
[32]	Sun, F., Wong, S.S. Li, G.C. and Chen, S.N. (2006) A Preliminary Assessment of Consumer’s Exposure to Pesticide Residues in Fisheries Products. Chemosphere, 62, 674-680.
[33]	MOFA, SRID (2014) National Crop Production Estimates 2010-2013. Statistical Research and Information Department, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Ghana.
[34]	FAO/WHO (2007) Scientific Update on Carbohydrate in Human Nutrition. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61.
[35]	Hill, A. (2000) Quality Control Procedures for Pesticide Residues Guidelines for Residues Monitoring in the European Union. 2nd Edition, Document No. SANCO/3103/2000, European Commission, Brussels.
[36]	USEPA (1998) Guidelines for Ecological Risk Assessment. Report No. EPA/630/R-95/002F, USEPA, Washington DC.
[37]	USEPA (2002) Lamda-Cyahalothrin Pesticide Tolerances, Final Rule. Federal Register (Rules and Regulations), 67, 60902-60915.
[38]	FAO (2001) FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture, Ghana. www.fao.org/fisheries/countrysector/F1-cp
[39]	USEPA (1989) Exposure Assessment Handbook. USEPA, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Washington DC.
[40]	Tchounwou, P.B., Bassem, A.A., Moreland-Young, C., Didair, A.R., Romeh, A.A., El-Adarosy, G., El-Sheikh, S., Lidell, F.P., Ibitayo, O. and Jean-Claude, A. (2002) Health Risk Assessment of Pesticide Usage in Menia El-Kamh Province of Sharkia Governorate in Egypt. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 3, 1082-1094. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/i3101082
[41]	Smit, A.G. and Gangolli, S.D. (2002) Organochlorine Chemicals in Seafood: Occurrence and Health Concerns. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 40, 767-779. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0278-6915(02)00046-7
[42]	Ngowi, A.V.F., Mbise, T.J., Ijani, A.S.M., London, L. and Ajayi, O.C. (2007) Pesticides Use by Smallholder Farmers in Vegetable Production in Northern Tanzania. Crop Protection, 26, 1617-1624. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2007.01.008
[43]	Gaber, S. and Abdel-Latif, S.H. (2012) Effect of Education and Health Locus of Control on Safe Use of Pesticides: A Cross Sectional Random Study. Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology, 7, 3.
[44]	Mekonnen, Y. and Agonafir, T. (2002) Pesticide Sprayers’ Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of Pesticide Use on Agricultural Farms of Ethiopia. Occupational Medicine, 52, 311-315. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/occmed/52.6.311
[45]	Ngowi, A.V.F. (2003) A Study of Farmers’ Knowledge, Attitude and Experience in the Use of Pesticides in Coffee Farming. The African Newsletter on Occupational Health and Safety, 13, 62.
[46]	Khan, M., Husnain, I.M., Akram, N. and Padda, H. (2009) Assessing Farmer’s Pesticide Safety Knowledge in Cotton Growing Area of Punjab Pakistan. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/16220/
[47]	Williamson, S., Ball, A. and Pretty, J. (2008) Trends in Pesticide Use and Drivers for Safer Pest Management in Four African Countries. Crop Protection, 27, 1327-1334. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2008.04.006
[48]	Sneldera, D.J., Masipiquen, A.B. and De Snooa, G.R. (2008) Risk Assessment of Pesticide Usage by Smallholder Farmers in the Cagayan Valley (Philippines). Crop Protection, 27, 747-762. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2007.10.011
[49]	Rucker, M. (1994) Attitude and Clothing Practices of Pesticide Applicators. In: Mastura, R., Ed., Protective Clothing Systems and Materials, Marcel Dekker, New York, 81.
[50]	Gomes, J., Lloyd, O.L. and Revitt, D.M. (1999) The Influence of Personal Protection, Environment Hygiene and Exposure to Pesticides on the Health of Immigrant Farm Workers in a Desert Country. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 72, 40-45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s004200050332
[51]	Jones, E., Mabota, A. and Larson, D.W. (2009) Farmers’ Knowledge of Health Risks and Protective Gear Associated with Pesticide Use on Cotton in Mozambique. The Journal of Developing Areas, 42, 267-282. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jda.0.0022
[52]	Kishi, M., Hirschhorn, N., Ojajadisastra, M., Satterfee, L.N., Stroman, S. and Dilts, R. (1995) Relationship of Pesticide Spraying to Signs and Symptom in Indonesian Farmers. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 21, 124-133. http://dx.doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.19
[53]	Ajayi, O.C. (2000) Pesticide Use Practices, Productivity and Farmer’s Health: The Case of Cotton Rice Systems in Coted’Ivoire, West Africa. A Publication of the Pesticide Policy Project, Special Issue Publication Series, No.3, Hannover, 172.
[54]	Andersch, I. and Anderson, J.P. (1991) Influence of Pesticides on Nitrogen Transformations in Soil. Toxicology and Environmental Chemistry, 30, 153-158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02772249109357650
[55]	FAO/WHO (2003) Expert Consultation. WHO Technical Report Series No. 916, World Health Organization, Geneva.
[56]	Kerle, E.A., Jenkins, J.J. and Vogue, P.A. (2007) Understanding Pesticide Persistence and Mobility for Groundwater and Surface Water Protection. Oregon State University Extension Services, EM8561-E.
[57]	Phewnil, O., Panichsakpatana, S., Tungkananuruk, N. and Pitiyont, B. (2010) Atrazine Transport from The Maize (Zea mays L.) Cultivated Upland Soil in Huay Kapo Watershed, Nam Nao District, Phetchabun Province, Thailand. Thai Journal of Agricultural Science, 43, 119-127.
[58]	Hiltbold, A.E. and Buchanan, G.A. (1997) Influence of Soil pH on the Persistence of Atrazine in the Field. Weed Science, 25, 515-520.
[59]	Hager, A.G. and Refsell, D. (2008) Chapter 13: Herbicides Persistence and How to Test for Residues in Soils. In: Illinois Agricultural Pest Management Handbook, University of Illinois Extension, Urbana, 279-286.
[60]	ATSDR (1993) Toxicological Profile for Heptachlor/Heptachlor Epoxide. US Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta.
[61]	https://secure.pesticides.gov.uk/MRLs/main.asp
[62]	Kishimba, M.A. and Mihale, M.J. (2004) Levels of Pesticide Residues and Metabolitesin Soil at Vikuge Farm, Kibaha District, Tanzania—A Classic Case of Soil Contamination by Obsolete Pesticides. Tanzania Journal of Science, 30.