Health Risk Associated with Pesticide Contamination of Fish from the Densu River Basin in Ghana

J. R. Fianko, A. Donkor, S. T. Lowor, P. O. Yeboah, E.T. Glover, T. Adom, A. Faanu

.

DOI: 10.4236/jep.2011.22013                

Abstract

The Densu River Basin constitutes one of the largest agricultural areas in Ghana. The practice of using pesticides such as organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids and several others in agriculture and public health programs has raised concerns about potentially adverse effects on human health and the environment. In this study, a field survey was conducted to assess farmers’ knowledge of safe handling and use of pesticides. Residues of pesticides in fish samples as well as the potential health risk associated with exposure to these pesticides were also evaluated. Data obtained from the field survey indicate that a very high proportion of farmers are at high risk of pesticide poisoning from occupational exposure. More than 90% of farm workers do not practice safety precaution during pesticide formulation and application leading to considerable prevalence of pesticide related illness in this agricultural community. Pesticide residues in fish samples varied greatly; from 0.10 µgKg-1 to 30.90 µgKg-1, consumption of fish and fisheries product from the basin was no zero risk. The estimated dose for aldrin, methoxychlor, γ-chlordane, endrin aldehyde, endrin ketone, endrin, p'p'-DDT and δ- HCH do not pose a direct hazard to human health, although present in fish samples since the values were lower than toxic thresholds as well as reference dose. However, γ- HCH, heptachlor, α-endosulfan, endosulfan Sulphate, p'p'-DDE and dieldrin levels exceeded the reference dose, indicating a great potential for systemic toxicity in children who are considered to be the most vulnerable population subgroup.

Keywords

Ghana, Pesticide Residue, Exposure, Health Risk, Densu

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	F. Sun, S. S. Wong, G. C. Li and S. N. Chen, “A Preliminary Assessment of Consumer’s Exposure to Pesticide Residues in Fisheries Products,” Chemosphere, Vol. 62, No. 4, 2006, pp. 674-680. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.04.112
[2]	F. O. Mensah, F. A. Yeboah and M. Akman, “Survey of the Effect of Aerosol Pesticide Usage on the Health of Farmers in the Akomadan and Afrancho Farming Community,” Journal of Ghana Science Association, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2004, pp. 44-48.
[3]	R. A. Fenske, J. C. Kissel, C. Lu, D. A. Kalman, N. J. Simcox, E. H. Allen and M. C. Keifer, “Biologically Based Pesticide Dose Estimates for Children in Agricultural Community,” Environmental Health perspectives, Vol. 108, No. 6, 2000, pp. 515-520. doi:10.1289/ehp.00108515
[4]	B. P. Tchounwou, B. A. Ashour, D. A. Ragheb and A. A. Romeh, “Health Risk Assessment of Pesticide Usage in Menia El-Kamh Province of Sharkia Governorate in Egypt,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences, Vol. 3, No. 10, 2002, pp. 1082-1094. doi:10.3390/i3101082
[5]	G. M. Calvert, W. T. Sanderson, M. Barnet, J. M. Blondell and L. N. Melher, “Surveillence of Pesticide-Related Illness and Injury in Humans,” In: Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, 2nd Edition, Academic Press, New York, 2001.
[6]	K. D. Whitney, F. J. Seildler and T. A. Stotkin, “Developmental Neurotoxicity of Chlorpyrifos: Cellular Mechanisms,” Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, Vol. 134, No. 1, 1995, pp. 53-62. doi:10.1006/taap.1995.1168
[7]	D. J. Snelder, M. D. Maasipiquena and G. R. de Snoo, “Risk Assessment of Pesticide Usage by Smallholder Farmers in the Cagayan Valley (Philippines),” Crop Protection, Vol. 27, No. 3-5, 2008, pp. 747-762. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2007.10.011
[8]	J. W. Ntow, “Pesticide Residues in Volta Lake, Ghana,” Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management, Vol. 10, No. 4, 2005, pp. 243-248. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1770.2005.00278.x
[9]	F. A. Yeboah, F. O. Mensah and A. K. Afreh, “The Probable Toxic Effects of Aerosol Pesticides on Hepatic Function among Farmers at Akomadan/Afrancho Traditional Area of Ghana,” Journal of Ghana Science Association, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2004, pp. 39-43.
[10]	E. Adetola, J. K. Ataki, E. Atidepe, D. K. Osei and A. B. Akosa, “Pesticide Poisoning – a Nine Year Study (1989 – 1997),” Department of Pathology, University of Ghana Medical School and Ghana Standards Board Accra, 1999.
[11]	E. E. K. Clarke, L. S. Levy, A. Spurgeon and I. A. Calvert, “The Problems Associated with Pesticide Use by Irrigation Workers in Ghana,” Occupational Medicine, Vol. 47, No. 5, 1997, pp. 301-308. doi:10.1093/occmed/47.5.301
[12]	P. O. Yeboah, G. M. S. Klufio, G. A. Dixon and A. Youdeowe, “TCDC Oriented Subregional Workshop on Pesticides Management Report,” FAO, 1989, pp. 8-9.
[13]	FDA, “Multiresidue Method,” Pesticides Analytical Manual, Vol. 1, No. 94-1, 1994, from 2905a (6/92).
[14]	M. Akerblom, “Environmental Monitoring of Pesticide Residues. Guidelines for the SADC Region. SADC/ ELMS,” Monitoring techniques, Series 3, Lesotho, 1995.
[15]	J. L. Zhou, H. Hong, Z. Zhang, K. Maskaoui and W. Chen, “Multi-Phase Distribution of Organic Micropollutants in Xiamen Harbour, China,” Water Research, Vol. 34, No. 7, 2000, pp. 2132-2150. doi:10.1016/S0043-1354(99)00360-7
[16]	USEPA, “Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Wastes SW-846,” Volume IA-Laboratory Manual: Physical and Chemical Methods, US EPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Washington D.C., 1994.
[17]	FAO/WHO, “Codex Maximum Residue Limits for Pesticides,” FAO, Rome, 2007.
[18]	A. Hill, “Quality Control Procedures for Pesticide Residues Guidelines for Residues Monitoring in the European Union,” 2nd Edition Document No. SANCO/3103/2000, European Commission, 2000.
[19]	USEPA, “Guidelines for Ecological Risk Assessment,” Washington, US EPA, Report No. EPA/630/ R-95/002F, 1998.
[20]	USEPA, “Lamda-Cyahalothrin Pesticide Tolerances, Fin- al Rule,” Federal Register (Rules and Regulations), Vol. 67, No. 188, 2002a, pp. 60902-60915.
[21]	USEPA, “Integrated Risk Information System,” USEPA, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment. Washington D.C., 1996.
[22]	FAO. FAO fisheries and Aquaculture, Ghana, 2001. www.fao.org/fisheries/country sector/F1-cp
[23]	USEPA, “Exposure Assessment Handbook,” USEPA, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Washington D.C., 1989.
[24]	Codex, “Codex Classification of Food and Animal Feed (Codex Alimentarius) Pesticide Residues in Food,” Rome, 2005.
[25]	Z. K. Smit, D. Indjic, S. Belic and M. Miloradov, “Effect of Water Quality on Physical Properties and Biological Activity of Tank Mix Insecticide-Fungicide Spray,” Proceedings of the Second Balkan Symposium on Vegetables and Potatoes, International Society Horticultural Science, Leuven, Belgium, Vol. 579, 2002, pp. 551-556.
[26]	A. V. F. Ngowia, T. J. Mbisea, A. S. M. Ijania, L. Londonb and O. C. Ajayic, “Smallholder Vegetable Farmers in Northern Tanzania: Pesticides Use Practices, Perceptions, Cost and Health Effects,” Crop Protection, Vol. 26, No. 11, 2007, pp. 1617-1624. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2007.01.008