Antibiotics/antibacterial drug use, their marketing and promotion during the post-antibiotic golden age and their role in emergence of bacterial resistance

Abstract

During the post-antibiotic golden age, it has seen a massive antibiotic/antibacterial production and an increase in irrational use of these few existing drugs in the medical and veterinary practice, food industries, tissue cultures, agriculture and commercial ethanol production globally. The irrational drug use has been further exacerbated by the increased marketing and promotion of these drugs by the pharmaceutical companies thus increasing their accessibility in the public and hence their improper use. The lack of production and introduction of the newer and effective antibiotic/antibacterial drugs in clinical practice in the post-antibiotic golden age has seen an increase in the emergence of the resistant pathogenic bacterial infections creating a significant problem in the global health of humankind. The massive productions of the antibiotic/antibacterial drugs have contributed to the poor disposal of these drugs and hence many of them are discharged in various water bodies contributing to the environmental antibiotic/antibacterial drug pollution. In the environment, these drugs exert pressure on the environmental bacteria by destroying useful bacteria that are responsible for the recycling of the organic matter and as well as promoting the selection of the resistant pathogenic bacteria that can spread in human and animal population thus causing an increase in the observed bacterial disease burden and hence a significant global public health problem. The resistant bacterial diseases lead to the high cost, increased occurrence of adverse drug reactions, prolonged hospitalization, the exposure to the second- and third-line drugs like in MDR-TB and XDR-TB that leads to toxicity and deaths as well as the increased poor production in agriculture and animal industry and commercial ethanol production.

Share and Cite:

Bbosa, G. , Mwebaza, N. , Odda, J. , Kyegombe, D. and Ntale, M. (2014) Antibiotics/antibacterial drug use, their marketing and promotion during the post-antibiotic golden age and their role in emergence of bacterial resistance. Health, 6, 410-425. doi: 10.4236/health.2014.65059.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] Flynn, W.T. (2012) The Judicious Use of Medically Important Antimicrobial Drugs in Food-Producing Animals. Center for Veterinary Medicine (HFV-1), Food and Drug Administration. US Department of Health and Human Services, 2012.
http://www.fda.gov/downloads/animalveterinary/guidancecomplianceenforce-ment/guidanceforindustry/ucm216936.pdf
[2] ABC (2013) Antibiotics 1928-2000: Millenium Bugs.
http://www.abc.net.au/science/slab/antibiotics/history.htm
[3] Clardy, J., Fischbach, M. and Currie, C. (2009) The natural history of antibiotics. Current Biology, 19, R437-R441. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2009.04.001
[4] CVM-MSU (2011) The golden age of antibacterials: Antimicrobial resistance learning site. Michigan State University, East Lansing.
http://amrls.cvm.msu.edu/pharmacology/historical-perspectives/the-golden-age-of-antibacterials
[5] Davies, J. (2013) Antibiotic discovery: Then and now. Issue: Antimicrobials. Microbiology-today.
http://www.sgm.ac.uk/en/publications/microbiology-today/past-issues.cfm/publication/antimicrobials/article/C1FD8C70-FA3C-4829-8E8DC35E8BD2F470
[6] VITEK (2008) Antibiotic classification and modes of action: Antibiotic classification. VITEK 2-Technology. © bio-Mérieux, Inc., Customer Education.
http://www.biomerieux-usa.com/upload/VITEK-Bus-Module-1-Antibiotic-Classification-and-Modes-of-Action-1.pdf
[7] Fischbach, M.A. and Walsh, C.T. (2009) Antibiotics for Emerging Pathogens. Science, 325, 1089-1093.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1176667
[8] Glew, R. (2010) Bacterial resistance to antimicrobials: From the Golden Age to the Bronze Age of antibiotic use. Medical Center.
http://veterinarymedicine.dvm360.com/vetmed/Medicine/Bacterial-resistance-to-antimicrobials-From-the-Go/ArticleStandard/Article/detail/660591
[9] Gottfried, J. (2005) History repeating? Avoiding a Return to the Pre-Antibiotic Age. Harvard University’s DASH Repository, 1-72.
http://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/8889467/Gottfried05.pdf?sequence=1
[10] Brunton, L.L., Chabner, B.A. and Knollmann, B.C. (2013) Chemotherapy of microbial diseases: Goodman & gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics, 12e. McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC, Section VII. http://accessmedicine.com/resourceTOC.aspx?resourceID=651
[11] Labnotesweek4 (2013) Modes of action for antimicrobial Agents. http://lifesci.rutgers.edu/skelly/spring/labnotesweek4.htm
[12] CVM-MSU (2011) Mechanisms of resistance against different antimicrobial classes: Microbiology. Michigan State University.
http://amrls.cvm.msu.edu/microbiology/bacterial-resis-tance-strategies/introduction/tools/module-pdf-files/microbiology
[13] Torrence, M.E., et al. (2008) Antibiotics: Mode of action, mechanisms of resistance, and transfer. Microbial food safety in animal agriculture: Current topics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470752616.ch6
[14] Wilcox, S. (2013) Cationic peptides: A new hope. The Science Creative Quarterly, 8.
http://www.scq.ubc.ca/cationic-peptides-a-new-hope/
[15] Esan, A. (2008) Ethical concerns regarding misleading drug promotion/marketing by the pharmaceutical industry. Journal and Proceedings of the Northern Ireland Ethics Forum, 5, 42-49.
http://www.qub.ac.uk/methics/EsanA2008.pdf
[16] Hogerzeil, H. and Reed, T. (2005) Understanding and responding to pharmaceutical promotion a practical guide first edition working draft for pilot field testing. World Health Organization/Health Action International Collaborative Project, 9-163.
http://www.haiweb.org/11062009/drug-promotion-manual-CAP-3-090610.pdf
[17] Norris, P., et al. (2005) Drug promotion: What we know, what we have yet to learn. Reviews of materials in the WHO/HAI database on drug promotion. World Health Organization and Health Action International 2005. http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/rational_use/drugPromodhai.pdf
[18] PEW (2013) Persuading the prescribers: Pharmaceutical industry marketing and its influence on physicians and patients. Pew Charitable Trusts (PEW).
http://www.pewhealth.org/other-resource/persuading-the-prescribers-pharmaceutical-industry-marketing-and-its-influence-on-physicians-and-patients-85899439814#sthash.6Ope0GFJ.dpuf
[19] Sufrin, C.B. and Ross, J.S. (2008) Pharmaceutical industry marketing: Understanding its impact on women’s health. Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 63, 585-596.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/OGX.0b013e31817f1585
[20] Cegedim (2013) U.S. Pharmaceutical Company Promotion Spending. Cegedim Strategic Data 2012.
http://www.skainfo.com/health_care_market_reports/2012_promotional_spending.pdf
[21] Brand, R. (2008) Marketing drugs: Debating the real cost: Concern about close ties between doctors and pharmaceutical firms are prompting new financial disclosure laws and education efforts. State Legis, 34, 26-29.
[22] Buckley, J. (2013) Pharmaceutical Marketing—Time for Change. Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies, 9, 4-11.
http://ejbo.jyu.fi/pdf/ejbo_vol9_no2_pages_4-11.pdf
[23] Neslin, S. (2011) ROI Analysis of Pharmaceutical Promotion (RAPP): An Independent Study. Pharmxpert.
http://www.pharmxpert.net/web/board/b_ne01upload/RAPP%EC%A1%B0%EC%82%AC.pdf
[24] Wazana, A. (2000) Physicians and the pharmaceutical industry: Is a gift ever just a gift? Journal of the American Medical Association, 283, 373-380.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.283.3.373
[25] Alexander, C.G., Zhang, J. and Basu, A. (2008) Characteristics of patients receiving pharmaceutical samples and association between sample receipt and out-of-pocket prescription costs. Medical Care, 46, 394-402.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MLR.0b013e3181618ee0
[26] Widayati, A., et al. (2011) Self medication with antibiotics in Yogyakarta City Indonesia: A cross sectional population-based survey. BMC Research Notes, 4, 491.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1756-0500-4-491
[27] WHO (2011) Tackling antibiotic resistance from a food safety perspective in Europe. World Health Organization (WHO). http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/136454/e94889.pdf
[28] CDC (2010) National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System for Enteric Bacteria (NARMS): Human Isolates Final Report, 2008. US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, Georgia.
[29] Meade-Callahan, M. (2001) Microbes: What they do & how antibiotics change them. American Institute of Biological Sciences. Actionbioscience.org.
http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/meade_callahan.html
[30] Baquero, F., Martinez, J. and Canton, R. (2008) Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance in water environments. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 19, 260-265.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2008.05.006
[31] Sukul, P. and Spiteller, M. (2007) Fluoroquinolone antibiotics in the environment. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 191, 131-162.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-69163-3_5
[32] Ding, C. and He, J. (2010) Effect of antibiotics in the environment on microbial populations. Applied Microbiology & Biotechnology, 87, 925-941.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00253-010-2649-5
[33] Martinez, J.L. (2009) Environmental pollution by antibiotics and by antibiotic resistance determinants. Environmental Pollution, 157, 2893-2902.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2009.05.051
[34] Biyela, P.T., J. Lin, and Bezuidenhout, C.C. (2004) The role of aquatic ecosystems as reservoirs of antibiotic resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes. Water Science and Technology, 50, 45-50.
[35] Giguère, S. (2006) Antimicrobial drug action and interaction: An introduction. In: Giguère, S., Prescott, J.F., Baggot, J.D., Walker, R.D. and Dowling, P.M., Eds., Antimicrobial therapy in Veterinary Medicine (4th ed.), Blackwell Publishing, Ames Iowa.
[36] Kümmerer, K. (2003) Significance of antibiotics in the environment. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 52, 5-7.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkg293
[37] Kümmerer, K. (2008) Effects of antibiotics and virustatics in the environment. Pharmaceuticals in the Environment, Springer, Berlin, 223-244.
[38] Gaash, B. (2008) Irrational use of antibiotics. Indian Journal for the Practising Doctor, 5.
[39] GARP (2011) Rationalizing antibiotic use to limit antibiotic resistance in India. Global Antibiotic Resistance Partnership (GARP)-India Working Group. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 134, 281-294.
http://icmr.nic.in/ijmr/2011/september/0905.pdf
[40] WHO (2002) Promoting rational use of medicines: Core components: WHO policy perspectives of medicines. No. 5. World Health Organization, Geneva.
[41] Cabello, F.C. (2006) Heavy use of prophylactic antibiotics in aquaculture: A growing problem for human and animal health and for the environment. Environmental Microbiology, 8, 1137-1144.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2006.01054.x
[42] Mehrotra, M., Dougherty, J. and Poppe, C. (2003) Antimicrobial resistance: Strengthening the policy research connection. Health Policy Research Bulletin, Canada.
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/sr-sr/alt_formats/hpb-dgps/pdf/pubs/hpr-rps/bull/2003-6-antimicrob/2003-6-antimicrob-eng.pdf
[43] Andersson, D. (2004) The ways in which bacteria resist antibiotics: The global threat of antibiotic resistance, exploring roads towards concerted action. A Multidisisciplinary Meeting at the DAG HAMMAR-SKJÖLD Foundation, Uppsala, 5-7 May 2004, Background Document.
http://archives.who.int/prioritymeds/report/append/bacteria.pdf.
[44] Berger-Bächi, B. (2002) Resistance mechanisms of Gram positive bacteria. International Journal of Medical Microbiology, 292, 27-35.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1078/1438-4221-00185
[45] Forbes, B.A., Sahm, D.F. and Weissfeld, A.S. (1998) Bailey and Scott’s diagnostic microbiology. 10th Edition, Mosby Inc., St. Louis Missouri.
[46] Hawkey, P.M. (1998) The origins and molecular basis of antibiotic resistance. British Medical Journal, 317, 657-660.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.317.7159.657
[47] Promega (2013) Antibiotics: Mode of action and mechanism of resistance. Technical Reference, Promega Foundation. http://www.promega.com/~/media/Files/Resources/Technical%20References/Antibiotic%20Mode%20of%20Action.pdf.
[48] Sosa, A., Byarugaba, D.K., Amabile, C., Hsueh, P.R., Kariuki, S. and Okeke, I.N. (2010) Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Microbiology.
http://www.springer.com/978-0-387-89369-3
[49] Tenover, F.C. (2006) Mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria. The American Journal of Medicine, 119, S3-S10.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.03.011
[50] Alexander, T.W., Yanke, J.L., Reuter, T., Topp, E., Read, R.R., Selinger, B.L. and McAllister, T.A. (2011) Longitudinal characterization of antimicrobial resistance genes in feces shed from cattle fed different subtherapeutic antibiotics. BMC Microbiology, 11, 19.
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2180/11/19.
[51] PEW. (2013) Antibiotic resistance and food animal production: A bibliography of scientific studies (1969-2012). The PEW Charitable Trust.
http://www.pewhealth.org/uploadedFiles/PHG/Content_Level_Pages/Issue_Briefs/HHIFBibliographyFinal%20with%20TOC%20_111312.pdf
[52] Salyers, A.A. and Amabile-Cuevas, C.F. (1997) Why are antibiotic resistance genes so resistant to elimination? Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 41, 2321-2325.
[53] Furuya, E.Y. and Lowy, F. (2006) Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in the community setting. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 4, 36-45.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro1325
[54] Encyclopædia-Britannica (2013) Antibiotic resistance: Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/129670/There-are-multiple-mechanisms-by-which-bacteria-can-develop-resistance.
[55] Todar, K. (2011) Bacterial mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Todar’s Online Textbook of Bacteriology, Madison.
http://textbookofbacteriology.net/resantimicrobial_3.html
[56] FASS (2010) Preserving the benefits of antibiotics for people and animals policy. Federation of Animal Science Societies (FASS).
http://www.fass.org/PreservingBenefitsAntibiotics.pdf
[57] Holloway, K.A. (2011) Promoting the rational use of antibiotics. Regional Adviser, Essential drugs and other medicines, World Health Organization, Regional Office for South-East Asia. Regional Health, 15, 122-130.
[58] WHO (2007) Progress in the rational use of medicines. World Health Assembly Resolution. Document No. WHA60.16. World Health Organization, Geneva, WHO, 71. http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHASSA_WHA60-Rec1/E/reso-60-en.pdf
[59] APUA (2012) The need to improve antibiotic use in food animals. The Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics (APUA). http://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/consumers/personal_home_25_277960095.pdf
[60] WHO (2006) The role of education in the rational use of medicines. World Health Organisation, Geneva. SEARO Technical Publication Series No. 45, 2006.
[61] WHO (2009) Medicines use in primary care in developing and transitional countries: Fact book summarizing results from studies reported between 1990 and 2006. Document No WHO/EMP/MAR/2009.3. World Health Organization, Geneva, WHO, 2009.
[62] Abdulah, R. (2012) Antibiotic abuse in developing Countries. Pharmaceutical Regulatory Affairs, 1, e106.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2167-7689.1000e106
[63] Amin, N. (2011) Use and misuse of antibiotics. Ibrahim Cardiac Medical Journal, 1, 7-9.
[64] Askarian, M. and Maharlouie, N. (2012) Irrational antibiotic use among secondary school teachers and university faculty members in Shiraz, Iran. International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 3, 839-845.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2008-7802.104854
[65] Chandy, S.J. (2008) Consequences of irrational use of antibiotics. Journal of the Forum for Medical Ethics Society, V.
[66] Elsiddi, H.A.A., Badr, E. and Abuzaid, A. (2010) Irrational use of antibiotics among people residing in Almamoura. Sudanese Journal of Public Health, 5, 50-55.
[67] Planta, M.B. (2007) The role of poverty in antimicrobial resistance. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, 20, 533-539.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3122/jabfm.2007.06.070019

Journals Menu
Follow SCIRP
Contact us
customer@scirp.org
WhatsApp +86 18163351462(WhatsApp)
Click here to send a message to me 1655362766
Paper Publishing WeChat

Copyright © 2022 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.