Determination of Seven Volatile N-Nitrosamines in Fast Food

Mohammad Al-Kaseem, Zaid Al-Assaf, François Karabeet

Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Phar-macy, Damascus University, Damascus, Syria.
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Damascus University, Damascus, Syria.

DOI: 10.4236/pp.2014.52026                

Abstract

In this study, various fast food samples, including raw meat, cured meat, grilled meat, fried meat, smoked meat and canned meat products, were analyzed for the determination of the seven volatile N-nitrosamines. The samples were treated with an aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) by autoclaving at 121°C for 10 min and extracted by liquid-liquid extraction with dichloromethane, and then the nitrosamines were pre-concentrated by using activated silica. Then, gas chromatography coupled with flame ionization detector was used for the separation and determination of the different nitrosamines contained in a real sample. The applied method allowed the determination of nitrosamine compounds at trace levels with limit of detection ranging from 0.077 to 0.18 ppb, and quantitation limits were from 0.26 to 0.60 ppb for all nitrosamines. The total concentrations of the seven nitrosamines in the studied meat samples ranged from 2.60 to 13.28 μg/kg.

Keywords

GC-FID; N-Nitrosamines; Fast Food; Meat; Autoclave

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	M. W. Byun, H. J. Ahn, J. H. Kim, J. W. Lee, H. S. Yook and S. B. Han, “Determination of Volatile N-Nitrosamines in Irradiated Fermented Sausage by Gas Chromatography Coupled to a Thermal Energy Analyzer,” Journal of Chromatography A, Vol. 1054, No. 1-2, 2004, pp. 403-407.
[2]	N. Campillo, P. Viñas, N. C. Martinez and M. H. Córdoba, “Determination of Volatile Nitrosamines in Meat Products by Microwave-Assisted Extraction and Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Micro-Extraction Coupled to Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry,” Journal of Chromatography A, Vol. 1218, No. 14, 2011, pp. 1815-1821. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2011.02.010
[3]	R. Rywotycki, “Meat Nitrosamine Contamination Level Depending on Animal Breeding Factors,” Meat Science, Vol. 65, No. 1, 2003, pp. 669-676. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0309-1740(02)00270-X
[4]	K. O. Honikel, “The Use and Control of Nitrate and Nitrite for the Processing of Meat Products,” Meat Science, Vol. 78, No. 1-2, 2008, pp. 68-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2007.05.030
[5]	R. A. Scanlan, “Encyclopedia of Food and Nutrition,” Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2003, pp. 4142-4147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/00831-2
[6]	H. Robles, “Encyclopedia of Toxicology,” Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2005, pp. 249-250. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-369400-0/00694-3
[7]	B. J. Sanchez, E. Ballesteros and M. Gallego, “Automatic Screening Method for the Pre-Concentration and Determination of N-Nitrosamines in Water,” Talanta, Vol. 73, No. 3, 2007, pp. 498-504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2007.04.007
[8]	S. Yurchenko and U. Molder, “Volatile N-Nitrosamines in Various Fish Products,” Food Chemistry, Vol. 96, No. 2, 2006, pp. 325-333. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.04.009
[9]	W. G. Lin, F. Wei, F. N. Gu, X. Dong, L. Gao, T. T. Zhuang, M. B. Yue and J. H. Zhu, “Adsorption of Nitrosamines by Mesoporous Zeolite,” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, Vol. 348, No. 2, 2010, pp. 621-627. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2010.05.012
[10]	A. R. Tricker and R. Preussmann, “Carcinogenic N-Nitrosamines in the Diet: Occurrence, Formation, Mechanisms and Carcinogenic Potential,” Mutation Research, Vol. 259, No. 3-4, 1991, pp. 277-289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-1218(91)90123-4
[11]	IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, “Monographs Programme Finds Smokeless Tobacco Is Carcinogenic to Humans,” International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2004.
[12]	S. Yurchenko and U. Molder, “The Occurrence of Volatile N-Nitrosamines in Estonian Meat Products,” Food Chemistry, Vol. 100, No. 4, 2007, pp. 1713-1721. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.10.017
[13]	M. Qiang, X. H. Wei, W. Chao, B. Hua, X. G. Cheng, S. Ning, X. L. Yan and W. J. Bing, “Determination of Ten Volatile Nitrosamines in Cosmetics by Gas Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry,” Chinese Journal of Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 39, No. 8, 2011, pp. 1201-1207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1872-2040(10)60466-5
[14]	M. T. Matyska, J. J. Pesek and L. Yang, “Screening Method for Determining the Presence of N-Nitrosodiethanolamine in Cosmetics by Open-Tubular Capillary Electrochromatography,” Journal of Chromatography A, Vol. 887, No. 1-2, 2000, pp. 487-503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00451-9
[15]	P. J. S. Filho, M. Valcarcel, A. Rios, K. D. Zanin and E. B. Caramoa, “Determination of Nitrosamines in Preserved Sausages by Solid-Phase Extraction-Micellar Electro-Kinetic Chromatography,” Journal of Chromatography A, Vol. 985, No. 1-2, 2003, pp. 503-512. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(02)01825-3
[16]	J. E. Grebel and H. I. Suffet, “Nitrogen-Phosphorus Detection and Nitrogen Chemiluminescence Detection of Volatile Nitrosamines in Water Matrices: Optimization and Performance Comparison,” Journal of Chromatography A, Vol. 1175, No. 1, 2007, pp. 141-144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2007.09.073
[17]	M. Z. Ozel, F. Gongus, S. Yagci, J. F. Hamilton and A. C. Lewis, “Determination of Volatile Nitrosamines in Various Meat Products Using Comprehensive Gas Chromatography-Nitrogen Chemiluminescence Detection,” Food and Chemical Toxicology, Vol. 48, No. 11, 2010, pp. 3268-3273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2010.08.036
[18]	B. Hfiger and R. Niessner, “Determination of N-Nitrosomethylaniline and Methylaniline in the Gas Phase,” Microchimica Acta, Vol. 122, No. 1-2, 1996, pp. 35-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01252403
[19]	J. A. Incavo and M. A. Schafer, “Simplified Method for the Determination of N-Nitrosamines in Rubber Vulcanizates,” Analytica Chimica Acta, Vol. 557, No. 1-2, 2006, pp. 256-261. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2005.10.018
[20]	D. Tsikas, “Methods of Quantitative Analysis of the Nitric Oxide Metabolites Nitrite and Nitrate in Human Biological Fluids,” Free Radical Research, Vol. 39, No. 8, 2005, pp. 797-815. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10715760500053651
[21]	J. W. Dallinga, D. M. Pachen, A. H. Lousberg, J. A. Van Geel, G. M. Houben, R. W. Stockburgger, J. M. Maanen and J. C. Kleinjans, “Volatile N-Nitrosamines in Gastric Juice of Patients with Various Conditions of the Gastrointestinal Tract Determined by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry and Related to Intragastic pH and Nitrate and Nitrite Levels,” Cancer Letters, Vol. 124, No. 2, 1998, pp. 119-125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3835(97)00467-9
[22]	Y. Xia, J. E. McGuffey, S. Bhattacharyya, B. Sellergren, E. Yilmaz and L. Wang, “Analysis of the Tobacco-Specific Nitrosamine 4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-Pyridyl)-1-Butanol in Urine by Extraction on a Molecularly Imprinted Polymer Column and Liquid Chromatography/ Atmospheric Pressure Ionization Tandem Mass Spectrometry,” Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 77, No. 23, 2005, pp. 7639-7645. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac058027u
[23]	G. Bellec, M. C. Cauvin, K. L. Calve, Y. Dreano, H. Gouerou, J. F. Menez and F. Berthou, “Analysis of N-Nitrosamines by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Post-Column Photohydrolysis and Colorimetric Detection,” Journal of Chromatography A, Vol. 727, No. 1, 1996, pp. 83-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0021-9673(95)01073-4
[24]	N. V. Komarova and A. A. Velikanov, “Determination of Volatile N-Nitrosamines in Food by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection,” Journal of Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 56, No. 4, 2001, pp. 359-363. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1016652213062
[25]	Association of Official Analytical Chemists, “N-Nitrosamines (Volatile) in Fried Bacon. Mineral Oil Vacuum Distillation—Thermal Energy Analyzer Method,” 15th Edition, No. 982.22, Official Methods of Analysis, 1990.
[26]	E. L. Greenfield, W. J. Smith and A. J. Malanovski, “Mineral Oil Vacuum Distillation for Nitrosamines in Fried Bacon, with Thermal Energy Analyser,” Journal of the Association Official Analytical Chemists, Vol. 65, No. 6, 1982, pp. 1319-1332.
[27]	G. M. Telling, T. A. Bryce and J. J. Althorpe, “Use of Vacuum Distillation and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry for Determining Low Levels of Volatile Nitrosamines in Meat Products,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 19, No. 5, 1971, pp. 937-940. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf60177a011
[28]	J. Nawrocki and P. Andrzejewski, “Nitrosamines and Water,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 189, No. 12, 2011, pp. 1-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.02.005
[29]	S. Raoul, E. Gremaud, H. Biaudet and R. Tureski, “Rapid Solid-Phase Extraction Method for the Detection of Volatile Nitrosoamines in Food,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 45, No. 12, 1997, pp. 4706-4713. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf970232q
[30]	S. Ventanas, D. Martín, M. Estévez and J. Ruiz, “Analysis of Volatile Nitrosamines from a Model System Using SPME-DED at Different Temperatures and Times of Extraction,” Food Chemistry, Vol. 99, No. 4, 2006, pp. 842-850. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.08.035
[31]	W. Fiddler and J. W. Pensabene, “Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Volatile N-Nitrosamines in Fried Bacon and Its Drippings: Method Comparison,” Journal of AOAC International, Vol. 79, No. 4, 1996, pp. 895-901.
[32]	M. Al-kaseem, Z. Assaf and F. Karabeet, “Rapid and Simple Extraction Method for Volatile N-Nitrosamines in Meat Products,” Pharmacology & Pharmacy, Vol. 4, 2013, pp. 611-618. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/pp.2013.48087
[33]	International Conference on Harmonization, “Validation of Analytical Procedure, Text and Methodology Q2 (R1),” IFPMA, Geneva, 2005.
[34]	BS ISO 29941, “Condoms—Determination of Nitrosamines Migrating from Natural Rubber Latex Condoms,” International Standards, Section 9, Confirmation of the Detected Nitrosamines, 2010.
[35]	D. Kocak, M. Z. Ozel, F. Gogus, J. F. Hamilton and A. C. Lewis, “Determination of Volatile Nitrosamines in Grilled Lamb and Vegetables Using Comprehensive Gas Chromatography—Nitrogen Chemiluminescence Detection,” Food Chemistry, Vol. 135, No. 4, 2012, pp. 2215-2220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.07.002
[36]	E. T. Huxel, R. A. Scanlan and L. M. Libbey, “Formation of N-Nitrosopyrrolidine from Pyrrolidine Ring Containing Compounds Atelevated Temperatures,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 22, No. 4, 1974, pp. 698-700. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf60194a008
[37]	M. L. Nollet and F. Toldra, “Handbook of Processed Meats and Poultry Analysis,” In: S. Rath and F. G. R. Reyes, Eds., Nitrosamines, Taylor & Francis Group, An Informa Business, New York, 2009, p. 684.