Oxytocin but Not Testosterone Modulates Behavioral Patterns in Autism Spectrum Disorders

Silvia Lakatosova, Sheinberg Nurit, Pivovarciova Anna, Husarova Veronika, Rozenfeld Irina, Ostatnikova Daniela, Castejon Ana Maria

College of Osteopathic Medicine, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, USA.
College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, USA.
Institute of Physiology, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia.
Mailman Segal Center, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, USA.

DOI: 10.4236/ojmp.2014.31006                

Abstract

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder of unknown etiology. Social deficits represent one of the core symptoms of the diagnosis. The aim was to reveal possible correlations among peripheral levels of oxytocin and testosterone with behavioral and symptom characteristics in patients with ASD. 8 children with ASD were recruited and underwent psychological profiling. Blood oxytocin and testosterone levels were analyzed using ELISA method. Oxytocin levels positively correlated with Adaptation to change category of CARS-2 (P = 0.008, R = 0.848) and Vineland-II maladaptive behavior scores (P = 0.004, R = 0.884). No significant correlations were found among testosterone levels and behavioral parameters. Higher oxytocin levels were connected with more severe adaptive behavior in ASD patients. Increased oxytocin levels in children with more severe phenotype could be a result of compensatory mechanism of impaired oxytocin signaling. Oxytocin seems to employ distinct mechanisms in regulating social behavior in autism and healthy population.

Keywords

Autism; Oxytocin; Testosterone; Maladaptive Behavior

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	M. Kosfeld, M. Heinrichs, P. J. Zak, U. Fischbacher and E. Fehr, “Oxytocin Increases Trust in Humans,” Nature, Vol. 435, No. 7042, 2005, pp. 673-676. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature03701
[2]	A. J. Guastella, P. B. Mitchell and M. R. Dadds, “Oxytocin Increases Gaze to the Eye Region of Human Faces,”Biological Psychiatry, Vol. 63, No. 1, 2008, pp. 3-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.06.026
[3]	G. Domes, M. Heinrichs, A. Michel, C. Berger and S. C. Herpertz, “Oxytocin Improves ‘Mind-Reading’ in Humans,” Biological Psychiatry, Vol. 61, No. 6, 2007, pp. 731-733. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.015
[4]	C. Modahl, L. Green, D. Fein, M. Morris, L. Waterhouse, C. Feinstein and H. Levin, “Plasma Oxytocin Levels in Autistic Children,” Biological Psychiatry, Vol. 43, No. 4, 1998, pp. 270-277. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(97)00439-3
[5]	L. Green, D. Fein, C. Modahl, C. Feinstein, L. Water-house and M. Morris, “Oxytocin and Autistic Disorder: Alterations in Peptide Forms,” Biological Psychiatry, Vol. 50, No. 8, 2001, pp. 609-613. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01139-8
[6]	L. Y. Al-Ayadhi, “Altered Oxytocin and Vasopressin Levels in Autistic Children in Central Saudi Arabia,” Neurosciences (Riyadh), Vol. 10, No. 1, 2005, pp. 47-50.
[7]	E. Andari, J. R. Duhamel, T. Zalla, E. Herbrecht, M. Leboyer and A. Sirigu, “Promoting Social Behavior with Oxytocin in High-Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorders,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 107, No. 9, 2010, pp. 4389-4394. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0910249107
[8]	M. Miller, K. L. Bales, S. L.Taylor, J. Yoon, C. M. Hostetler, C. S. Carter and M. Solomon, “Oxytocin and Vasopressin in Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Sex Differences and Associations with Symptoms,” Autism Research, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2013, pp. 91-102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aur.1270
[9]	E. Hollander, S. Novotny, M. Hanratty, R. Yaffe, C. M. DeCaria, B. R. Aronowitz and S. Mosovich, “Oxytocin Infusion Reduces Repetitive Behaviors in Adults with Autistic and Asperger’s Disorders,” Neuropsychopharmacology, Vol. 28, No. 1, 2003, pp. 193-198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1300021
[10]	E. Hollander, J. Bartz, W. Chaplin, A. Phillips, J. Sumner, L. Soorya, E. Anagnostou and S. Wasserman, “Oxytocin Increases Retention of Social Cognition in Autism,” Biological Psychiatry, Vol. 61, No. 4, 2007, pp. 498-503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.05.030
[11]	A. J. Guastella, S. L. Einfeld, K. M. Gray, N. J. Rinehart, B. J. Tonge, T. J. Lambert and I. B. Hickie, “Intranasal Oxytocin Improves Emotion Recognition for Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders,” Biological Psychiatry, Vol. 67, No. 7, 2010, pp. 692-694. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.09.020
[12]	E. Anagnostou, L. Soorya, W. Chaplin, J. Bartz, D. Halpern, S. Wasserman, A. T. Wang, L. Pepa, N. Tanel, A. Kushki and E. Hollander, “Intranasal Oxytocin versus Placebo in the Treatment of Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Molecular Autism, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2012, pp. 3-16.
[13]	K. M. Kramer, B. S. Cushing, C. S. Carter, J. Wu and M. A. Ottinger, “Sex and Species Differences in Plasma Oxytocin Using an Enzyme Immunoassay,” Canadian Journal of Zoology, Vol. 82, 2004, pp. 1194-1200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z04-098
[14]	C. S. Carter, “Sex Differences in Oxytocin and Vasopressin: Implications for Autism Spectrum Disorders?” Behavioural Brain Research, Vol. 176, No. 1, 2007, pp. 170-186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2006.08.025
[15]	D. A. Geier and M. R. Geier, “A Prospective Assessment of Androgen Levels in Patients with Autistic Spectrum Disorders: Biochemical Underpinnings and Suggested Therapies,” Neuro Endocrinology Letters, Vol. 28, No. 5, 2007, pp. 565-573.
[16]	E. Schwarz, P. C. Guest, H. Rahmoune, L. Wang, Y. Levin, E. Ingudomnukul, L. Ruta, L. Kent, M. Spain, S. Baron-Cohen and S. Bahn, “Sex-Specific Serum Biomarker Patterns in Adults with Asperger’s Syndrome,” Molecular Psychiatry, Vol. 16, No. 12, 2011, pp. 1213-1220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/mp.2010.102
[17]	L. Ruta, E. Ingudomnukul, K. Taylor, B. Chakrabarti and S. Baron-Cohen, “Increased Serum Androstenedione in Adults with Autism Spectrum Conditions,” Psychoneuroendocrinology, Vol. 36, No. 8, 2011, pp. 1154-1163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.02.007
[18]	S. Baron-Cohen, R. C. Knickmeyer and M. K. Belmonte, Science, Vol. 310, No. 5749, 2005, pp. 819-823. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1115455
[19]	R. Knickmeyer, S. Baron-Cohen, B. A. Fane, S. Wheel-wright, G. A. Mathews, G. S. Conway, C. G. Brook and M. Hines, “Androgens and Autistic Traits: A Study of Individuals with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia,” Hormones and Behavior, Vol. 50, No. 1, 2006, pp. 148-153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.02.006
[20]	J. T. Manning, S. Baron-Cohen, S. Wheelwright and G. Sanders, “The 2nd to 4th Digit Ratio and Autism,” Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, Vol. 43, No. 3, 2001, pp. 160-164.
[21]	E. Ingudomnukul, S. Baron-Cohen, S. Wheelwright and R. Knickmeyer, “Elevated Rates of Testosterone-Related Disorders in Women with Autism Spectrum Conditions,” Hormones and Behavior, Vol. 51, No. 5, 2007, pp. 597-604. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.02.001
[22]	A. K.Wermter, I. Kamp-Becker, P. Hesse, G. Schulte-Korne, K. Strauch and H. Remschmidt, “Evidence for the Involvement of Genetic Variation in the Oxytocin Receptor Gene (OXTR) in the Etiology of Autistic Disorders on High-Functioning Level,” American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, Vol. 153B, No. 2, 2010, pp. 629-639.
[23]	J. Saenz and G. M. Alexander, “Postnatal Testosterone Levels and Disorder Relevant Behavior in the Second Year of Life,” Biological Psychiatry, Vol. 94, No. 1, 2013, pp. 152-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.05.011
[24]	B. Auyeung, J. Ahluwalia, L. Thomson, K. Taylor, G. Hackett, K. J. O’Donnell and S. Baron-Cohen, “Prenatal versus Postnatal Sex Steroid Hormone Effects on Autistic Traits in Children at 18 to 24 Months of Age,” Molecular Autism, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2012, p. 17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/2040-2392-3-17
[25]	S. M. van Anders, K. L. Goldey and P. X. Kuo, “The Steroid/Peptide Theory of Social Bonds: Integrating Testosterone and Peptide Responses for Classifying Social Behavioral Contexts,” Psychoneuroendocrinology, Vol. 36, No. 9, 2011, pp. 1265-1275. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.06.001