Suggested landfill sites for hazardous waste in Iraq

Nadhir Al-Ansari, Roland Pusch, Sven Knutsson

Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Lule? University of Technology, Lule?, Sweden.

DOI: 10.4236/ns.2013.54060                

Abstract

Iraq experienced two devastating wars in 1991 and 2003, during which massive amounts of new weapons and sophisticated manufactured nuclear weapons were used called Depleted Uranium (DU). As a consequence of the radioactive contamination; the humans are suffering from various disease like cancer and the environment is polluted. In practice, there is no strategy and/ or national program, not even well thought out plans and scientific personnel and technical equipment required to clean Iraq of these wastes. Reviewing the geological, topographical and hydrological data, it had been noticed that Umm Chaimin depression is a good candidate site to dump all contaminated radioactive scrap and soil. The suggested design of the landfill will ensure safe containment of the waste for hundreds of thousands of years even if significant climatic changes will take place.

Keywords

Iraq; Umm Chaimin; Depleted Uranium; Landfill; Site Selection Criteria

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	Pearce, D. and Walker, Ch. (1996) Sustainable development. In: Baily, R., Ed., Water and Environmental Man agement in Developing Countries, Amazon Company, UK.
[2]	Jackson, B. (1996) International institutions. In: Baily, R., Ed., Water and Environmental Management in Developing Countries.
[3]	Aldiab, S. (2000) The gap between planning and execution of environmental policies in Jordan: A case study of Jordan valley. M.A. Thesis, Al al-Bayt University, Jordan.
[4]	Chandak, S.P. (2010) Trends in solid waste management: Issues, challenges and opportunities. International Consultative Meeting on Expanding Waste Management Services in Developing Countries, Tokyo, 18-19 March 2010.
[5]	Abdel Rahman, R., Ed. (2012) Radioactive waste. Tech Publishing, Croatia, 219.
[6]	IAEA (1995) The principles of radioactive waste management. Safety Series, 111-F, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna.
[7]	IAEA (2002) Long term storage of spent nuclear fuel— Survey and recommendations. Final report of a coordinated research project, 1994-1997. TecDoc-1293, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna.
[8]	IAEA (2010) Setting authorized limits for radioactive discharge: Practical issues to consider.
[9]	Yagasaki, K. (2003) Depleted uranium shells, the radioactive weapons—Perpetuation of war damage by radiation, group of peace education against nuclear weapon. The World Uranium Weapons Conference, University of the Ryukyus, August 2003.
[10]	Reeves, D.M., Parashar, R. and Zhang, Y. (2012) Hydro geologic characterization of fractured.
[11]	IAEA (2011) Nuclear technology review 2011. IAEA/ NTR/20011, Vienna.
[12]	ICBUW (2008) International coalition to ban uranium weapons, European Parliament passes far reaching DU resolution in landslide vote. http://www.bandepleteduranium.org/en/a/181.html
[13]	Al-Muqdadi, K. (2000) Discovery of DU effects is a humanitarian mission. Althakafa Aljadeda Magazine, 296 (in Arabic).
[14]	Bollyn, C. (2004) The real dirty bombs: Depleted uranium. http://www.erichufschmid.net/TFC/Bollyn-Uranium-Iraq-Vets.html
[15]	Wagner, F. and Thurn, V. (2005) The doctor, the depleted uranium and the dying children, documentary film produced for German television and released by Ochoa Wagner production in 2004 in Germany, exposes the use and impact of radioactive weapons during the current war against Iraq. http://www.grassrootspeace.org/depleted_uranium_iraq.html
[16]	Rowe, D.G. (2003) Depleted uranium casts a shadow over peace in Iraq. The New Scientist Magazine, 2391.
[17]	Durakovic, A. (2003) Undiagnosed illnesses and radioactive Warfare. CrOATIAN Medical Journal, 44, 520-532.
[18]	Puppetgov (2009) Radioactive US weapons taking toll in Iraq. http://www.puppetgov.com/2009/08/24/radioactive-us-weapons-taking-toll-in-iraq/http://www.puppetgov.com/2009/08/24/radioactive-us-weapons-taking-toll-in-iraq/
[19]	Hall, I.W. (2006) Depleted uranium for dummies. http://iaea.org/Publications/Reports/ntr2011.pdf http://www.notinkansas.us/du_3.html http://www.umrc.net/news_archive.aspx?year=2004 http://www.zcommunications.org/du-and-the-liberation-of-iraq-by-christian-scherrer,Life
[20]	Alshakhly, M. (2003) Radioactive uranium threatens Iraq: Level of radiation pollution is 30,000 the accepted level. Journal of Environment and Development, 69 (in Arabic).
[21]	Ross, S. (2008) We are living through another Hiroshima. Iraqi doctor says, uruknet.info, informazione dalmedio oriente information from Middle East. http://www.uruknet.de/?p=m42361&hd=&size=1&1=e
[22]	Williams, T.D. (2008) Flashback: The depleted uranium threat. http://www.truthout.org/article/the-depleted-uranium-threat
[23]	UMRC (2004) Uranium Medical Research Centre reports.
[24]	Al-Muqdadi, K. and Al-Ansari, N.A. (2011) The waste of wars in Iraq: Its nature, size and contaminated areas. Workshop on Landfills of Hazardous Waste and Its Implications on Health and Environment, Lulea, 15-17 November 2011, 1-34.
[25]	Al-Muqdadi, K. and Al-Ansari, N.A. (2011) Depleted uranium: Its nature, characteristics and risks of the military uses on humans and the environment. Workshop on Landfills of Hazardous Waste and Its Implications on Health and Environment, Lulea, 15-17 November 2011.
[26]	Al-Daghastani, H. (2011) Using reflection anomalies to detect radioactive contaminations in Nineveh governorate Northern Iraq. Workshop on Landfills of Hazardous Waste and Its Implications on Health and Environment, Lulea, 15-17 November 2011, 35-51.
[27]	Al-Ansari, N.A., Pusch, R., Knutsson, S. and Al-Muqdadi, K. (2011) Effective isolation of radioactive military wastes in Iraq—A necessary humanitarian action. Workshop on Landfills of Hazardous Waste and Its Implications on Health and Environment, Lulea, 15-17 November 2011, 52-71.
[28]	Al-Ansari, N.A., Al-Hanbali, A. and Knutsson, S. (2012) Locating solid waste landfills in Mafraq City, Jordan. Journal of Advanced Science and Engineering Research, 2, 40-51.
[29]	Chulov, M. (2010) Iraq littered with high levels of nu clear and dioxin contamination, study finds.
[30]	Al-Muqdadi, K. (2007) When cleaning radioactively contaminated sites in Iraq? Environment & Development, 112-113 (in Arabic).
[31]	Weyman, T. (2003) Abu Khasib to Al Ah’qaf: Iraq Gulf War II field investigations report. Uranium Medical Research Centre. http://www.umrc.net/os/downloads/Iraq_report_1.doc
[32]	Scherrer, C. (2003) DU and the liberation of Iraq, Christian Scherrer’s Z Space page.
[33]	Al-Taie, L. (2012) Performance of landfills of hazardous waste with special respect to the function of the clay liner. Licentiate Thesis, Lulea University of Technology, Lulea.
[34]	MEMERI (2003) Nuclear scientists in Iraq: Citizens stole uranium and other dangerous materials. The Middle East Media Research Institute, Special Dispatch, 497. http://www.memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/858.htm
[35]	Press TV (2010) Radioactive US weapons taking toll in Iraq.
[36]	Lorimore, S.A. and Wright, E.G. (2003) Radiation-induced genomic instability and bystander effect: Related inflammatory-type responses to radiation-induced stress and injury? A review. International Journal of Radiation Biology, 79, 15-25.
[37]	Arbuthnot, F. (1991) Allies. Shells Leave Deadly Radia tion, Scotland on Sunday, 18 March 1991.
[38]	Cohen, N. (1991) Radioactive waste left in gulf by allies. The Independent on Sunday, London.
[39]	Ministry of Environment of Iraq (MOEN) (2007) Report on the environmental fact in 2007 (published in Arabic). http://www.moen.gov.iq/waq3.html
[40]	Al-Muqdadi, K. (2006) Beware of scrap iron from the remnants of war. Environment and Development, 8, 16 21.
[41]	Al-Muqdadi, K. (2008) Appeal to clean up the Iraq war remains. Environment & Development, 135 (in Arabic).
[42]	Al-Muqdadi, K. (2009) Call to clean Iraq from war re mains. Environment and Development, 135, 18-29 (in Arabic).
[43]	Aldistor (2008) Separation of army equipment in contaminated areas of Baghdad. Aldistor Newspaper, Bagh dad (in Arabic).
[44]	Alobaidy, A. (2005) Ministry of Environment pin points 311 sites contaminated by DU. Alquds Alarabi, 6 (in Arabic).
[45]	Ahmad, R. (2010) 87 thousand tons of contaminated scrap in Basrah. Almalaf Press, 26 (in Arabic).
[46]	INA (2009) Discovery of new DU contaminated scrap site south Basdrah. Iraq News Agency, 29 (in Arabic).
[47]	Aswat Aliraq (2009) Metallurgical state company starts to clean contamination in iron factory. Aswat Aliraq News Paper, 24 (in Arabic).
[48]	Zankana, H. (2009) Women in Faloja avoid pregnancy due to the fear of having disabled children. Alkus Alarabi News Paper, London (in Arabic).
[49]	Clark, A.C. (1995) Solid, toxic, and hazardous waste environmental science. In: Kemp, M.J., Ed., Environ mental Science, 3rd Edition, Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Iova.
[50]	Enger, E.D. and Smith, B.F. (1995) Environmental science, a study of interrelationships. 6th Edition, WCB, McGraw-Hill, Washington DC.
[51]	EPA (2005) Introduction to hazardous waste identification (40 CFR parts 261). No. EPA 530-K-05-012.
[52]	IAEA (1994) Classification of radioactive waste (Safety series No. GSG-1). IAEA, Vienna.
[53]	Pusch, R. and Khil, A. (2004) Percolation of clay liners of ash landfills in short and long time.
[54]	Al-Taie, L., Al-Ansari, N.A., Knutsson, S. and Pusch, R. (2011) Hazardous wastes problems in Iraq: A suggestion for an environmental solution. Workshop on Landfills of Hazardous Waste and Its Implications on Health and Environment, Lule? University of Technology, Lule?, 15-17 November 2011, 90-108.
[55]	Pusch, R. (2000) On the risk of liquefaction of buffer and backfill. SKB Technical Report TR-00-18, Stockholm.
[56]	Pusch, R. and Yong, R.N. (2006) Microstructure of smectite clays and engineering performance (electronic resource). Taylor & Francis, London, New York.
[57]	Pusch, R., Kasbohm, J., Pacovskt, J. and Cechova, Z. (2010) Chemical stability of montmorillonite buffer clay under repository-like conditions—A synthesis of relevant experimental data. Applied Clay Science, 47, 113-119. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2009.01.002
[58]	Pusch, R., Malmborg, B. and Strandljung, K. (2011) Ex ample of construction of very tight clay liners—The H?g bytorp case. Workshop on Landfills of Hazardous Waste and Its Implications on Health and Environment, Lule? University of Technology, Lule?, 15-17 November 2011, 72-89.
[59]	Pusch, R. and Weston, R. (2012) Superior techniques for disposal of highly radioactive waste (HLW). Progress in Nuclear Energy, 59, 75-85. doi:10.1016/j.pnucene.2012.01.005
[60]	Malczewski, J. (1999) GIS and multicriteria decision analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
[61]	Dikshit, A.K., Padmavathi, T. and Das, R.K. (2000) Lo cating potential landfill sites using geographic information system. Journal of Environmental Systems, 28, 43-54. doi:10.2190/PMU7-1H8M-LVJQ-R16T
[62]	Lin, H.Y. and Kao, J.J. (1999) Enhanced spatial model for landfill siting analysis. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 125, 845-852. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1999)125:9(845)
[63]	Kao, J.J. and Lin, H.Y. (1996) Multi factors spatial analy sis for landfill siting. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 122, 902-907. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1996)122:10(902)
[64]	Tammemagi, H. (1999) The waste crisis: Landfill, incin erators, and the search for a sustainable future. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 279.
[65]	Siddiqui, M.Z., Everett, J.W. and Vieux, B.E. (1996) Land fill siting using geographic information system: A demonstration. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 122, 515-523. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1996)122:6(515)
[66]	Oweis, I.S. and Khera, R.P. (1998) Geotechnology of waste management. 2nd Edition, PWS Publishing Company, Boston.
[67]	Sloan, W.M. (1993) Site selection for new hazardous waste management facilities. WHO European Publications European Series, 46, World Health Organization, Copenhagen.
[68]	Petts, J. and Eduljee, G. (1994) Environmental impact assessment for waste treatment and disposal facilities. John Wiley, Chichester, 342.
[69]	Basagaoglu, H., Celenk, E., Marino, M.A. and Usula, N. (1997) Selection of waste disposal sites using GIS. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 33, 455 464. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.1997.tb03524.x
[70]	Kao, J.J., Chen, W.Y., Chen, W., Lin, H. and Guo, S. (1996) Network expert geographic information system for landfillsiting. Journal of Computing and Civil Engineering, 10, 307-317. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0887-3801(1996)10:4(307)
[71]	Bonham-Carter, G.F. (1994) Geographic information systems for geoscientists: modelling with GIS. Pergamon, Oxford.
[72]	Hussey, V., Dodd, V.A. and Dennison, G.J. (1996) Locating a landfill site for Dublin using geographic information systems. Proceeding of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Municipal Engineer, 115, 125-133. doi:10.1680/imuen.1996.29147
[73]	Kao, J.J., Lin, H.Y. and Chen, W.Y. (1997) Network ex pert geographic information system for landfill siting. Journal of Waste Management & Research, 15, 239-253.
[74]	Baban, M.J. and Flannagan, J. (1998) Developing and implementing GIS-assisted constraints criteria for planning landfill sites in the UK. Journal of Planning & Research, 13, 139-151.
[75]	Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works (1985) Off site industrial waste storage treatment and disposal facilities: Proposed siting criteria. Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works, Australia.
[76]	Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection-Canada (1993) landfill criteria for municipal solid waste. http://www.gov.bc.ca/epd/epdpa/mpp/lcmsw.htm
[77]	Cheremisinoff, N.P. (2003) Handbook of solid waste management and waste minimisation technology. Elsevier Science, New York, 477.
[78]	Batstone R., Smith J.E.J. and Wilson, D. (1989) The safe disposal of hazardous waste: The special needs and problems of developing countries. Vol. I, II and III, The World Bank Technical Papers, Washington DC.
[79]	Al-Meshan, O. (2005) Location criteria for domestic and hazardous waste disposal to landfill in the Jordanian Badia using GIS. PhD Thesis, Coventry University, Coventry.
[80]	Sissakian, V.K. (2007) General information. Iraqi Bulle tin of Geology and Mining, 3, 5-8.
[81]	Ma’ala, K.A. (2009) Geomorphology. Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and Mining, 5, 5-32.
[82]	Ma’ala, K.A. (2009) General information. Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and Mining, 3-4.
[83]	Fouad, S. and Nasir W. (2009) Tectonics and structural evolution, geomorphology. Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and Mining, 5, 33-48.
[84]	Alsinawi, S.A. (2006) Seismicity. In: Jassim, S.Z. and Goff, J.C., Eds., Geology of Iraq, Dolin Publ., Praque and Moravian Museum, 84-90.
[85]	White, W.B. and White, E.L. (2006) Size scales for closed depressions landforms. Speleologenesis and Evaluation of Karst Aquifers, The Online Scientific Journal, Internet data.
[86]	Sissakian, V.K. and Jabbar, M.F.A. (2008) Using remote sensing and GIS techniques in detecting the origin of Umm Chaimin depression. West Iraq. Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and Mining, 4, 51-72.
[87]	Hagopian, D.H. (1979) Regional geological mapping of Nahidain-Tinif area. Iraqi Geological Survey Report No. 983.
[88]	Scientific Research Council (1985) Seismological map of Iraq.
[89]	Al-Kadimi, J.A.M., Sissakian, V.K., Fattah, A.S. and Dei kran, D.B. (1996) Tectonic map of Iraq.
[90]	Jassim, S.Z. and Buday T.B. (2006) Units of the stable shelf. In: Jassim, S.Z. and Goff, J.C., Eds., Geology of Iraq, Dolin Publ., Praque and Moravian Museum, 57-70.
[91]	Jassim, S.Z. (1980) Umm Chaimin depression, Western Desert. Iraqi Geological Survey Report.
[92]	Al-Hashimi, H.A. (1982) Contribution to the origin of Umm Al-Chaimin depression, Western Desert. Journal of the Geological Society of Iraq, 15, 35-39.
[93]	Jassim, S.Z. (1981) Excursion guide to the Western Desert of Iraq. 6th Iraqi Geological Congress, Baghdad, 28-31.
[94]	Marriam, R. and Holwerda, J.G. (1957) Al-Umchaimin, a crater of possible meteoritic origin in Western Iraq. The Geographical Journal, 123, 231-233. doi:10.2307/1791323
[95]	Mitchell, R.C. (1958) The Al-Umchaimin crater, Western Iraq. The Geographical Journal, 124, 578-580.
[96]	Al-Naqib, K.M. (1967) Geology of the Arabian Peninsula. USGS Professional Paper, 560-g, 54.
[97]	Al-Din, T.S., Al-Sanawi, S.A. and Matolin, M. (1970) Al-Umm Chaimin depression, Western Iraq. Not an As trobleme. Journal of the Geological Society of Iraq, III, 1.
[98]	Blizkovisky, M. (1971) Geophysical measurements in the area of Al-Umm Chaimin topographic depression.