Diversity of Orchids in Terms of Their Distribution, Uses and Conservation in Annapurna Conservation Area of Nepal

Babu Lal Tiruwa^1,2*, Basu Dev Neupane¹, Rabin Kadariya¹, Chiranjibi Prasad Pokheral¹, Bijaya Pant²

¹National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC)-Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), Pokhara, Nepal.
²Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal.

DOI: 10.4236/ajps.2024.156030                

Abstract

The Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), the first conservation area and the largest protected area (PA) in Nepal, is incredibly rich in biodiversity. Notwithstanding this, orchids in the ACA have not been explored enough yet thus making the need for ambitious research to be carried out. Previous study only included 81 species of orchids within ACA. This study aims to update the record of species and genera richness in the ACA. In total 198 species of orchids, belonging to 67 genera (40% and 62% of the total recorded orchid species and genera in Nepal) has been recorded in ACA. This represents an increase of 144% in species and 56% in genera over the previous data. Out of the 198 species, 99 were epiphytes, 6 were holomycotrophic and 93 were terrestrial. Among the 67 genera, Bulbophyllum (17) species were dominant, followed by Dendrobium (16), Herminium (10), Coelogyne, Plantanthera (9 each), Eria, Habenaria, Oberonia (8 each), Calanthe (7), and Liparis (6). Fifty-six species were found to be ornamentally significant and 85 species medicinally significant.

Keywords

Orchids, Annapurna Conservation Area, Diversity, Distribution, Uses

1. Introduction

Orchids are among the most beautiful plants in the world. Orchids belong to the Orchidaceae family, the world’s most extravagant family of flowering plants [1] [2] [3]. Taxonomically, Orchidaceae is the most evolved family among the monocotyledons, with 750 - 1000 genera and 25,000 - 35,000 species [4] [5] [6]. Orchids contribute approximately one-tenth of the world’s total flowering plants.

Nepal is predominantly a Himalayan country with extensively diverse ecology, flora, and fauna with respect to its geography. Its high altitudinal variation accounts for its high floral diversity. Nepal is home to 6653 species of flowering plants of ranging diversity [7] [8] [9]. Altogether 1590 genera of 231 families live in varying habitats ranging from low lying tropical zones to high alpine zones [9]. In fact, Nepal’s flora is cosmopolitan in their distribution [10]. Orchidaceae, with 108 genera and 501 species, is the largest family of flowering plants in Nepal, which include the new confirmed species of orchids published in various journals [11]-[16]. There are 324 species of endemic flowering plants in Nepal. Among them, 20 are orchids [9] [11] [13] [17]. Among the orchid species found in the nation, more than 80 are used ornamentally [11] and more than 100 are used medicinally in different parts of the country [10] [11] [18] [19] [20]. Orchids are famous among Nepalese under local names such as “Sungava, Chandigava and Sunakhari”. Nepalese orchids are very popular because of their shape, size, habit, habitat, visual appeal due to their colourful flowers, shining green leaves and variously shaped pseudobulbs. They exhibit an incredible range of diversity in the size, shape, and colour of their flowers; they are in great demand for horticultural purposes. Orchids are awesome creations of nature in terms of their ornamental, economic, food, and medicinal values [21]. They are widely recognized, and used not just in Nepal but by many cultures, and tribes in various parts of the world [22] [23].

Orchids are considered as fine examples of some of the most advanced floral evolution due to their interactions with pollinators, and their symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi. Generally, on the basis of stem structure, orchids may be either sympodial “joint-footed” or monopodial “one-footed” [5] [10]. In sympodial orchids, new shoots arise from any auxiliary bud present in any part of older shoots that spread out from a long rhizome. Genera like Bulbophyllum, Cypripedium, and Dendrobium etc. are examples of sympodial orchids. In monopodial orchids, the shoots undergo indefinite apical growth but lack rhizome pseudobulbs. Genera Arides, Rhynchostylis, and Vanda etc. are the example of monopodial orchids [5] [24]. Based on the habitat, orchids are classified as epiphytes, terrestrials, lithophytes and saprophytes [25] [26]. Flowers are the most incredible and iconic parts of the plant body. They are arranged in two whorls: the outer most whorl is the calyx and the inner most whorl, the corolla. The outer whorl comprises sepals and the inner whorl, petals. The third petal is modified into a typical shape and structure called a lip. The lip plays a vital role in pollination because it attracts pollinators [26]. The orchid pod contains numerous microscopic seeds. In most species, there are more than a million seeds per capsule. After ripening, they blow around like dust particles or spores and are barely visible to the human eye. In general, the embryo has a rounded or spherical form without cotyledons, radicals, or endosperm. Because they lack endosperm, orchid seeds must enter symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi to germinate [27] [28]. These fungi provide the necessary nutrients to seeds. Thus, all species of orchids rely upon mycorrhizal association with various fungi to germinate, mostly of the genus Rhizoctonia (class Basidiomycetes), for at least part of their life cycle [29]. Of all the seed released, only 5% into new orchids under natural conditions [30].

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has included all species of orchids in its Red Data Book, and orchids have been incorporated in Appendix of the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) to promote their conservation in their natural habitats. Despite this legal protection, numbers of orchids have been continually declining and exploited because of their ornamental and medicinal value and high marked demand [26].

The orchids of the Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) have not yet been adequately explored, so ambitious research to be carried out to explore more genera and species. The previous data of orchids of ACA has included only 81 species belonging to 43 genera. Of these 81 species, 38 are epiphytes, 2 are holomycotrophic and 40 are terrestrial [31] [32], Tiruwa et al., [33]. The aim of this research is to update the species of orchids found in the ACA in its earlier report.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The present study was conducted across the entire area of ACA (7629 km²), which is the first conservation area and the largest protected area of Nepal [34]. Geographically, it lies between 83˚34'E to 84˚25'E longitude and 28˚15'N to 28˚50'N latitude in Northern Gandaki Province in the Western Development Region of Nepal. ACA is bordered to the east by Marsyangdi Valley, to the west by Kali Gandaki River, to the north by the dry alpine desert of Dolpa and Tibet (China), and to the south by the valleys and foothills of Pokhara. It spreads over five administrative districts of Nepal, namely Lamjung, Kaski, Manang, Mustang, and Myagdi districts. The altitudes of ACA ranges between 950 masl (Madi Valley) to 8,091 masl (Annapurna-I) [35]. ACA’s typical climatic zones range from tropical to nival. The annual mean temperature of ACA is 14˚C with maximum and minimum temperature 35˚C & −30˚C respectively. The southern Annapurna region has the highest precipitation ratees in the country while northern Annapurna receives 25 mm to 500 mm of precipitation annually. Microclimate vary with altitude and aspect and annual rainfall ranges between193 mm to 2987 mm from the trans-Himalayan region of Mustang to the Cis-Himalayan region of Ghandruk, Kaski [36]. Because of its geographical variation, ACA has become the home of diverse flora and fauna totaling about 2814 species. Among them, 1047 species of animals and 1767 species are plants. They are 1605 angiosperms, 16 gymnosperm, 118 pteridophytes, and 28 phytoplankton [31], Tiruwa et al., [33] (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Map of study area (Annapurna Conservation Area).

2.2. Sources of Data

Two major methods were used to gather data for this study: a field survey and a literature review. In the field survey, we surveyed all Manang District, all the Unit Conservation Office (UCO) Bhujung, which is the part of Lamjung District that lies inside the ACA. We collected plant specimens and made a herbarium. Additionally, we also took photos of the relevant specimens for their further identification by comparing them with the plant specimens deposited in the National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH).

We assembled data of orchids found in all of Mustang district, certain parts of Kaski district (all of UCO Ghandruk, Sikles, and Lwang), and Myagdi district (certain parts of UCO Ghandruk) from the literature review. We reviewed and used data from validly published literature. These included books [10] [37] [38] [39], reports [31] [36] [40], various scientific research publications [1] [7] [11] [12] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [25] [38] [41]-[47], including online blog sources http://plantdatabase.kath.gov.np/ [48]. The assembled data were analyzed by using MS-excel 2016. The extracted data included names of species and genera of different orchids, their locations and elevations, and their medicinal and ornamental uses.

3. Results

3.1. Status and Distribution of Orchids within the ACA

This study revealed that the ACA is the home to 198 species of orchids belonging to 67 genera, which make up 40 % and 62 % data of Nepal’s total orchid species and genera respectively. This data is 144% and 56% more than that recorded in the most previous study. Among these 67 genera, Bulbophyllum was the most dominant genera with 17 species, followed by Dendrobium (16), Heminium (10), Coelogyne, Plantanthera (9 each), Eria, Habenaria, Oberonia (8 each), Calanthe (7), Liparis (6), Cymbidium, Goodyera (5 each), Oreorchis, Peristylus, Pholidota (4 each), Crepidium, Cypripedium, Neottia, Neottainthe, Otochilus, Pleione and Zeuxine (3 each), and Aerides, Epipactis, Epipogium, Eulophia, Malaxis, Nervilia, Phalaenopsis, Satyrium, Spiranthes, Sunipia and Thunia (2 each). The rest of the genera comprised onlya single species. Of the five districts in the ACA, Lamjung district (UCO Bhujung) had the highest diversity of orchids, 55 genera and 143 species, followed by Kaski, Manang, Myagdi, and Mustang district respectively. Mustang had the least diversity of orchids, 16 genera and 26 species. The details of orchids are shown in Figure 2.

Similarly, in terms of habitat, only epiphytes, holomycotrophic, and terrestrial were considered. Out of the 198 species of orchids in ACA, 99 were epiphytes, 6 were holomycotrophic, and 93 were terrestrial. These represented 39%, 38%, and 40% of all orchids in Nepal respectively. In comparison to the previous study, epiphytes increased by 161%, holomycotrophic by 100%, and terrestrial orchids by 133% in this study. Within ACA, the largest numbers of epiphytic orchid species were recorded in Lamjung (88), and the fewest in Mustang (3). The largest number of holomycotrophic orchid species were recorded in Myagdi, and Lamjung (2 each) and the fewest in rest of district (1 each). The greatest number of terrestrial orchid species were recorded in Lamjung (53) and the fewest in Myagdi (20). Details on the distribution of orchids according to their habitat are given in Figure 3.

3.2. Comparative Study of Top Genera

The comparative study of genera richness of orchid of ACA with national total had also carried out in reference to the recent publication [16]. The study shown that Bulbophyllum was found to be the richest genera both in national and ACA total i.e. 42 and 17 species respectively. However, Peristylus was recorded as the genera abided the least number of species in ACA while Eria in national total. The details of genera richness are show in the below Figure 4.

Figure 2. Comparative distribution of orchids in ACA according to their genera and species.

Figure 3. Comparative distribution of orchids in ACA according to their habitats.

Figure 4. Comparative study of genera richness with national total.

3.3. Uses: Medicinal and Ornamental

Orchids have been categorized into two major uses in the local and national contexts of Nepal: ornamental and medicinal. Among 67 genera and 198 species of orchids in ACA, 56 species belonging to 22 genera were ornamentally valuable. These figures represent 79% and 70% respectively of the national totals. Similarly, 85 species of 41 genera were used medicinally. These figures represented 84% and 89% of the national totals. In comparison with the old data, the numbers of genera and species increased by 29% and 60% respectively for ornamental orchids and 86 % and 98 % for medicinally used orchids. The details of the data are presented in Figure 5.

4. Threats and Conservation Status of Orchids in the ACA

Orchids are among the most threatened flowering plant species. They are rapidly depleting from their natural habitats due to over-exploitation, the destruction of habitat, and the impact of climate change [1]. In the ACA, orchids are over-exploited because local people harvest them to meet their basic needs, including those for food, traditional medicine and enhance livelihoods by raising local economy. To meet the enormous demand for orchids and take advantage of its high economic value in national and international markets, orchids are collected and traded illegally at the local and national levels. Overgrazing in high Himalayan pastureland is another big reason that orchids in the high mountains are being depleted. Urbanization, unplanned physical planning and development, deforestation, forest fires, and encroachment are major challenges: all resulting in the rapid destruction of orchid habitats. Drought, excessive rainfall, too much snow, landslides, floods, avalanches, and variations in temperature because of the impacts of climate change directly influence the destruction of the orchid habitats, thereby preventing their regeneration and growth. These are among the greatest threats to orchids. Shifting of cropland, overutilization of chemical on crops, reduction in the number of pollinators, and destructive diseases are other reasons for the loss of orchids from their habitats [18]. The majority of highly valuable ornamental and medicinal orchids are under considerable threat of depletion due to over and indiscriminate collection [49]. Even with well-developed monitoring mechanisms to constrain the illegal collection and trade of orchids in ACA, it is not easy to eliminate these threats because of the ACA’s

Figure 5. Comparative distribution of orchids in ACA according to their uses.

geographical structure.

To protect all orchid species in their natural habitats, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, and Natural Resources (IUCN) has incorporated them in its Red Data Book. They all are found in Appendix of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) [10]. Despite these efforts, some valuable orchids are extinct. Therefore, it is time to plan and execute effective strategies to conserve them throughout the globe. The conservation of orchids is a big challenge and issue that should be seriously considered by all stakeholders, especially government line agencies, the private sector of the concerned nations, research institutions, non-government organization, community-based groups, and local people. Rare and endangered valuable orchids out to be conserved using both in-situ and ex-situ practices. To ensure the rapid rehabilitation and spread of vulnerable species of orchids in their habitats, tissue culture and micropropagation techniques can be applied. In tissue culture, mass scales of desired orchid plantlets can be developed in a short period. More effective monitoring mechanisms of orchids ought to be devised and implemented to halt the illegal collection and trade. Awareness building is a powerful tool to conserve orchids at the local level, so enhanced awareness among local people about orchids will be critical for their conservation success.

5. Conclusion

Some research on orchids has been conducted in certain parts of the ACA, but the entire ACA has not been covered yet. This study helped refine data on the orchids found in the ACA, focusing on their uses, number, and distribution. This study shows that the ACA is a treasure house of over 198 species belonging to 67 genera. Most of them are medicinally very significant. It is important to preserve all species in their natural habitats. They can be utilized, but only in moderation and with consideration for the variables that could negatively impact their ability to regenerate. ACA is rich in diversity of flora which has abided 1767 species of plants [31], Tiruwa et al., [33]. Furthermore, 117 species of orchids enlisted to the previous study of plants of ACA, thus making a total of 1884 species in total. Additional comprehensive and ambitious research is recommended in order to discover, catalog, and protect more species in the ACA.

Acknowledgements

We express our sincere thanks to National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC)/ Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), Hariyo-kharka, Pokhara for providing us such a platform to carry out this research. We are grateful to Mr. Bhakta Bahadur Raskoti, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China, for his valuable assistances in the identification of some of the species. We also convey our thanks to Mrs. Rita Chhetri, National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH), Lalitpur, Nepal, for unconditional support for herbarium specimen identification.

Some photos of Orchids collected from various parts of ACA

Some photos of Orchids collected from various parts of ACA

Statements & Declarations

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to this research work. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Babu Lal Tiruwa, Basu Dev Neupane, Rabin Kadariya, Chirnajibi Prasad Pokheral and Bijaya Pant. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Babu Lal Tiruwa and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Data Availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Appendix

S. No.	Scientific name	Habitat		Sources (Ref.)
				Ornamental		Medicinal	Species Data
1	Acampe rigida (Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.) P.F.Hunt	Epiphytic		1		1	1, 8
2	Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. & McCann	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1
3	Aerides multiflora Roxb.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4	1, 8, 3
4	Aerides odorata Lour.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1, 3
5	Agrostophyllum callosum Rchb.f.	Epiphytic				1	1
6	Anthogonium gracile Wall. ex Lindl.	Terrestrial				1	1
7	Arundina graminifolia (D.Don) Hochr.	Terrestrial		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 8
8	Brachycorythis obcordata (Lindl. ex Wall.) Summerh.	Terrestrial				1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	4, 10
9	Bulbophyllum affine Wall. ex Lindl.	Epiphytic		1			1, 8
10	Bulbophyllum ambrosia (Hance) Schltr. subsp. Nepalensis J. J. Wood	Epiphytic					3
11	Bulbophyllum careyanum Spreng.	Epiphytic				1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1
12	Bulbophyllum cariniflorum Rchb. f.	Epiphytic					1
13	Bulbophyllum caudatum Lindl.	Epiphytic					1
14	Bulbophyllum cylindraceum Lindl.	Epiphytic					1
15	Bulbophyllum eublepharum Rchb.f.	Epiphytic					1
16	Bulbophyllum leopardinum (Wall.) Lindl. ex Wall.	Epiphytic		1		12, 3, 4, 5	1, 3
17	Bulbophyllum moniliforme C.S.P.Parish & Rchb.f.	Epiphytic					1
18	Bulbophyllum muscicola Rchb.f.	Epiphytic					1
19	Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (Sm.) Lindl. ex Wall.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4	1
20	Bulbophyllum polyrrhizum Lindl.	Epiphytic					1
21	Bulbophyllum reptans (Lindl.) Lindl. ex Wall.	Epiphytic					1
22	Bulbophyllum rolfei (Kuntze) Seidenf.	Epiphytic					10
23	Bulbophyllum striatum Rchb.f.	Epiphytic					1
24	Bulbophyllum umbellatum Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		2, 3, 4, 5	4
25	Bulbophyllum viridiflorum (Hook.f.) Schltr.	Epiphytic					1
26	Calanthe alpina Hook. f. ex Lindl.	Terrestrial					1
27	Calanthe brevicornu Lindl.	Terrestrial		1			1, 8
28	Calanthe mannii Hook.f.	Terrestrial					1
29	Calanthe plantaginea Lindl.	Terrestrial		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1, 4, 8
30	Calanthe puberula Lindl.	Terrestrial				1, 2, 3, 4, 5	2
31	Calanthe sylvatica (Thouars) Lindl.	Terrestrial		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	10
32	Calanthe tricarinata Lindl.	Terrestrial		1		1, 2, 3, 4	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
33	Cephalanthera longifolia (L.) Fritsch	Terrestrial		1		1, 2, 3, 4	2, 8
34	Coelogyne corymbosa Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 3, 4, 5
35	Coelogyne cristata Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 3, 4, 5, 8
36	Coelogyne flaccida Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	3, 10
37	Coelogyne fuscescens Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 8
38	Coelogyne nitida (Wall. ex D.Don) Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1, 2, 3, 4, 8
39	Coelogyne ovalis Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1
40	Coelogyne prolifera Lindl.	Epiphytic				1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1
41	Coelogyne punctulata Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1
42	Coelogyne stricta (D. Don) Schltr.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 3
43	Cremastra appendiculata (D.Don) Makino	Terrestrial				1	1
44	Crepidium acuminatum (D.Don) Szlach.	Terrestrial				1, 2, 3, 4	1, 6
45	Crepidium calophyllum (Rchb.f.) Szlach.	Terrestrial					4
46	Crepidium purpureum (Lindl.) Szlach.	Terrestrial					1
47	Cryptochilus luteus Lindl.	Epiphytic					3, 8
48	Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1
49	Cymbidium bicolor Lindl.	Epiphytic					1
50	Cymbidium elegans Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1
51	Cymbidium erythraeum Lindl.	Epiphytic					1
52	Cymbidium iridioides D.Don	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 5,
53	Cypripedium cordigerum D.Don	Terrestrial		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	3, 8
54	Cypripedium elegans Rchb. f.	Terrestrial		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 8
55	Cypripedium himalaicum Rolfe ex Hemsl	Terrestrial		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1, 3, 8
56	Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soó	Terrestrial				1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8
57	Dendrobium amoenum Wall. ex Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8
58	Dendrobium amplum Lindl.	Epiphytic		1			1
59	Dendrobium aphyllum (Roxb.) C.E.C.Fisch.	Epiphytic		1			1
60	Dendrobium chrysanthum Wall. ex Lindl.	Epiphytic				1, 2	1
61	Dendrobium crepidatum Lindl. & Paxton	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1
62	Dendrobium densiflorum Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1, 2, 8
63	Dendrobium denudans D.Don	Epiphytic				1	1
64	Dendrobium eriiflorum Griff.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4	1, 3
65	Dendrobium fimbriatum Hook.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	4
66	Dendrobium heterocarpum Wall. ex Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		2, 3, 4	1
67	Dendrobium longicornu Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1, 4
68	Dendrobium moniliforme (L.) Sw.	Epiphytic				1, 4	1
69	Dendrobium moschatum (Buch.-Ham.) Sw.	Epiphytic				1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1
70	Dendrobium polyanthum Wall. ex Lindl.	Epiphytic					1
71	Dendrobium porphyrochilum Lindl.	Epiphytic					1, 5
72	Dendrobium transparens Wall. ex Lindl.	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1
73	Dienia cylindrostachya Lindl.	Terrestrial				1, 2, 3, 4	6
74	Epipactis helleborine (L.) Crantz	Terrestrial				1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 2, 8
75	Epipactis royleana Lindl.	Terrestrial					1, 7, 8
76	Epipogium aphyllum Sw.	Holomycotrophic					2
77	Epipogium roseum (D.Don) Lindl.	Holomycotrophic					1
78	Eria annapurnensis L.R.Shakya & M.R.Shrestha	Epiphytic					3, 8
79	Eria carinata Gibson ex Lindl.	Epiphytic					3
80	Eria clausa King & Pantl.	Epiphytic					1, 3, 4, 5
81	Eria coronaria (Lindl.) Rchb.f.	Epiphytic					3
82	Eria excavata Lindl.	Epiphytic					3
83	Eria pokharensis Bajrach., Subedi & K. K. Shrestha	Epiphytic		1		1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1
84	Eria spicata (D.Don) Hand.-Mazz.	Epiphytic				1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	8
85	Eria apertiflora Summerh.	Epiphytic					1
86	Eulophia dabia (D.Don) Hochr.	Terrestrial					3
87	Eulophia explanata Lindl.	Terrestrial					2, 8
88	Flickingeria fugax (Rchb.f.) Seidenf.	Epiphytic					1
89	Galearis spathulata (Lindl.) P.F.Hunt	Terrestrial		1			1, 3, 4
90	Galeola lindleyana (Hook.f. & Thomson) Rchb.f.	Holomycotrophic					10
91	Gastrochilus calceolaris (Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.) D.Don	Epiphytic					2, 6
92	Gastrodia elata Blume	Holomycotrophic					3
93	Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr.	Terrestrial					1
94	Goodyera fusca (Lindl.) Hook.f.	Terrestrial				1, 2, 3, 4	1, 2, 8
95	Goodyera henryi Rolfe	Terrestrial					1
96	Goodyera procera (Ker Gawl.) Hook.	Terrestrial				1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	3
97	Goodyera repens (L.) R.Br.	Terrestrial					2, 3
98	Goodyera vittata (Lindl.) Benth. ex Hook.f.	Terrestrial				2	3, 4
99	Gymnadenia orchidis Lindl.	Terrestrial				1	1, 4
100	Habenaria aitchisonii Rchb.f.	Terrestrial					1
101	Habenaria arietina Hook.f.	Terrestrial				2, 3, 4, 5	4
102	Habenaria dentata (Sw.) Schltr.	Terrestrial		1		1, 2, 3, 4	1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8
103	Habenaria digitata Lindl.	Terrestrial					1
104	Habenaria gibsonii foetida Blatt. & McCann	Terrestrial					3
105	Habenaria intermedia D.Don	Terrestrial					3
106	Habenaria pectinata D.Don	Terrestrial					1
107	Habenaria pubescens Lindl.		Terrestrial				1
108	Herminium alaschanicum Maxim.		Terrestrial				3, 6
109	Herminium albomarginatum (King) X.H.Jin, Schuit., Raskoti & Lu Q.Huang		Terrestrial				1
110	Herminium chloranthum Tang & F.T.Wang		Terrestrial				3, 6
111	Herminium clavigerum (Lindl.) X.H.Jin, Schuit., Raskoti & Lu Q.Huang		Terrestrial			1, 2, 3, 4	2, 3
112	Herminium duthiei Hook.f.		Terrestrial				3, 6, 8
113	Herminium josephi Rchb.f.		Terrestrial			2, 3, 4	1, 2, 3, 8
114	Herminium lanceum (Thunb. ex Sw.) Vuijk		Terrestrial				1
115	Herminium mackinnonii Duthie		Terrestrial				1
116	Herminium macrophyllum (D.Don) Dandy		Terrestrial				1
117	Herminium monorchis (L.) R.Br.		Terrestrial				1
118	Liparis campylostalix Rchb.f.		Terrestrial				1, 3
119	Liparis deflexa Hook.f.		Terrestrial				1, 4
120	Liparis elliptica Wight		Epiphytic			2, 5, 6	1
121	Liparis petiolata (D.Don) P.F.Hunt & Summerh.		Terrestrial		1	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1
122	Liparis resupinata Ridl.		Epiphytic				3, 6, 8
123	Liparis rostrata Rchb.f.		Terrestrial			1, 2, 3, 4, 5	2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8
124	Luisia trichorrhiza (Hook.) Blume		Epiphytic				1
125	Malaxis monophyllos (L.) Sw.		Terrestrial				3
126	Malaxis muscifera (Lindl.) Kuntze		Terrestrial				3
127	Mycaranthes floribunda (D.Don) S.C.Chen & J.J.Wood		Epiphytic				5
128	Myrmechis pumila (Hook.f.) Tang & F.T.Wang		Terrestrial				3
129	Neottia listeroides Lindl.		Holomycotrophic			3, 4	2, 4
130	Neottia pinetorum (Lindl.) Szlach.		Terrestrial			2	2
131	Neottia tenii Schltr.		Holomycotrophic				1, 7
132	Neottianthe calcicola (W.W.Sm.) Schltr.		Terrestrial				1
133	Neottianthe cucullata (L.) Schltr.		Terrestrial				1
134	Neottianthe secundiflora (Kraenzl.) Schltr.		Terrestrial				1
135	Nervilia concolor (Blume) Schltr.		Terrestrial				1
136	Nervilia plicata (Andrews) Schltr.		Terrestrial				1
137	Oberonia acaulis Griff.		Epiphytic				1, 5
138	Oberonia cavaleriei Finet		Epiphytic				3
139	Oberonia ensiformis (Sm.) Lindl.		Epiphytic				1
140	Oberonia falcata King & Pantl.		Epiphytic				8
141	Oberonia longilabris King & Pantl.		Epiphytic				1, 2, 3, 4, 8
142	Oberonia obcordata Lindl.		Epiphytic				1
143	Oberonia pachyrachis Rchb.f. ex Hook.f.		Epiphytic				2
144	Oberonia rufilabris Lindl.		Epiphytic				2, 3, 4, 5
145	Odontochilus lanceolatus (Lindl.) Blume		Terrestrial				1
146	Oreorchis foliosa (Lindl.) Lindl.		Terrestrial				1
147	Oreorchis foliosa var. indica (Lindl.) N. Pearce & P. J. Cribb		Terrestrial		1	1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1
148	Oreorchis micrantha Lindl.		Terrestrial		1	2	1
149	Oreorchis nepalensis N. Pearce & P. J. Cribb		Terrestrial				1
150	Otochilus albus Lindl.		Epiphytic				10
151	Otochilus fuscus Lindl.		Epiphytic				4
152	Otochilus lancilabius Seidenf.		Epiphytic				4
153	Panisea demissa (D.Don) Pfitzer		Epiphytic				1, 3
154	Pecteilis susannae (L.) Raf.		Terrestrial				3
155	Peristylus affinis (D.Don) Seidenf.		Terrestrial			2	1
156	Peristylus elizabethae (Duthie) R.K.Gupta		Terrestrial		1		1
157	Peristylus fallax Lindl.		Terrestrial		1		1
158	Peristylus goodyeroides (D.Don) Lindl.		Terrestrial		1	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 8
159	Phalaenopsis difformis (Wall. ex Lindl.) Kocyan & Schuit.		Epiphytic		1	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 2, 3, 4, 8
160	Phalaenopsis taenialis (Lindl.) Christenson & Pradhan		Epiphytic			1, 2, 3, 4	4
161	Pholidota articulata Lindl.		Epiphytic				4
162	Pholidota imbricata Hook.		Epiphytic				1
163	Pholidota pallida Lindl.		Epiphytic			2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1
164	Pholidota protracta Hook.f.		Epiphytic			2, 3, 4	3
165	Pinalia bipunctata (Lindl.) Kuntze		Epiphytic			2	8
166	Platanthera bakeriana (King & Pantl.) Kraenzl.		Terrestrial			1	3
167	Platanthera edgeworthii (Hook.f. ex Collett) R.K.Gupta		Terrestrial				1
168	Platanthera japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.		Terrestrial				1
169	Platanthera latilabris Lindl.		Terrestrial				3
170	Platanthera leptocaulon (Hook.f.) Soó		Terrestrial				1
171	Platanthera sikkimensis (Hook.f.) Kraenzl.		Terrestrial				1
172	Platanthera stenantha (Hook.f.) Soó		Terrestrial				1, 4
173	Platanthera stenoglossa Hayata		Terrestrial		1	1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8
174	Platanthera urceolata (Hook.f.) R.M.Bateman		Terrestrial		1	2, 3, 4, 5	8, 10
175	Pleione hookeriana ( Lindl.) J. Moore		Epiphytic				1
176	Pleione humilis (Sm.) D.Don		Terrestrial			2, 5	1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8
177	Pleione praecox (Sm.) D.Don		Terrestrial		1	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 3, 8
178	Podochilus cultratus Lindl.		Epiphytic				1
179	Ponerorchis chusua (D.Don) Soó		Terrestrial		1	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8
180	Porpax elwesii Rolfe		Epiphytic				1
181	Rhynchostylis retusa (L.) Blume		Epiphytic			1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1
182	Satyrium nepalense var. ciliatum (Lindl.) Hook.f.		Terrestrial		1		4, 8
183	Satyrium nepalense D.Don		Terrestrial		1	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	2, 3, 4, 7, 8
184	Smitinandia micrantha (Lindl.) Holttum		Epiphytic				1
185	Spathoglottis ixioides (D.Don) Lindl.		Terrestrial				1
186	Spiranthes spiralis (L.) Chevall.		Terrestrial				1
187	Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames		Terrestrial				3
188	Sunipia bicolor Lindl.		Epiphytic				1
189	Sunipia cirrhata (Lindl.) P.F.Hunt		Epiphytic		1	1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1
190	Taeniophyllum scaberulum Hook.f.		Epiphytic		1	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6	1, 4, 10
191	Tainia minor Hook.f.		Epiphytic				1
192	Thunia alba (Lindl.) Rchb.f.		Epiphytic			1, 2, 3, 5	1
193	Thunia alba var. bracteata (Roxb.) N.Pearce & P.J.Cribb		Epiphytic				1
194	Vanda cristata Wall. ex Lindl.		Epiphytic			2, 3	1
195	Vandopsis undulata (Lindl.) J.J.Sm.		Epiphytic				1
196	Zeuxine affinis (Lindl.) Benth. ex Hook.f.		Terrestrial				1
197	Zeuxine flava (Wall. ex Lindl.) Trimen		Terrestrial				1
198	Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Schltr.		Terrestrial			1, 2, 3, 4, 5	1

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

[1]	Pant, B. (2013) Medicinal Orchids and Their Uses: Tissue Culture a Potential Alternative for Conservation. African Journal of Plant Science, 7, 448-467. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajps2013.1031
[2]	Hossain, M.M. (2011) Therapeutic Orchids: Traditional Uses and Recent Advances— An Overview. Fitoterapia, 82, 102-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2010.09.007
[3]	Atwood, J.T. (1995) Phylogeny and Classification of the Orchid Family. Robert L. Dressler. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 70, 84-84. https://doi.org/10.1086/418905
[4]	Arditti, J. (1980) Aspects of the Physiology of Orchids. Advances in Botanical Research, 7, 421-655. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2296(08)60091-9
[5]	Raskoti, B.B. (2009) The Orchids of Nepal. Bhakta Bahadur Raskoti and Rita Ale, Quality Printers.
[6]	Chen, X. (2009) Flora of China, Volume 25: Orchidaceae. Beijing and Missouri Botanical Garden Press.
[7]	Rajbhandary, S., Siwakoti, M., Rai, S.K. and Jha, P.K. (2020) An Overview of Plant Diversity in Nepal. In: Siwakoti, M., Jha, P.K., Rajbhandary, S. and Rai, S.K., Eds., Plant Diversity in Nepal, Botanical Society of Nepal, 1-15.
[8]	Bhuju, U.R., Shakya, P.R., Basnet, T.B. and Shrestha, S. (2007) Nepal Biodiversity Resource Book. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). https://doi.org/10.53055/ICIMOD.475
[9]	Kunwar, R.M., Shrestha, K., Dhungana, S.K., Shrestha, P.R. and Shrestha, K.K. (2010) Floral Biodiversity of Nepal an Update. Journal of Natural History Museum, 25, 295-311.
[10]	Pant, B. and Raskoti, B.B. (2013) Medicinal Orchids of Nepal. Himalayan Map House (P.) Ltd.
[11]	Rajbhandari, K.R. (2014) Orchids of Nepal: Status, Threat and Conservation. Proceedings of National Workshop on NTFPs/MAPs Sector Action Plan Development: Orchid, Kathmandu, 1-40.
[12]	Raskoti, B.B. and Shrestha, K.K. (2015) Phreatia Elegans Lindley (Orchidaceae)—A New Record for the Flora of Nepal. Pleione, 9, 365-368.
[13]	Bhandari, K.P., Shrestha, A.K.C. and Shrestha, K.K. (2020) Three New Records of Orchids from Nepal. The Journal of Japanese Botany, 95, 41-46.
[14]	Raskoti, B.B. (2015) A New Species of Gastrochilus and New Records for the Orchids of Nepal. Phytotaxa, 233, 179-184. https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.233.2.5
[15]	Rokaya, M.B., Raskoti, B.B., Timsina, B. and Münzbergová, Z. (2013) An Annotated Checklist of the Orchids of Nepal. Nordic Journal of Botany, 31, 511-550. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-1051.2013.01230.x
[16]	Koju, L., Shrestha, N., Raskoti, B.B., Ale, R., Ghimire, N.P. and Shrestha, S. (2023) Spatial Patterns, Underlying Drivers and Conservation Priorities of Orchids in the Central Himalaya. Biological Conservation, 283, Article 110121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110121
[17]	Bhandari, P., Budhamagar, S. and Shrestha, K.K. (2018) A Checklist of Flowering Plants of Panchase Protected Forest, Kaski District, Central Nepal. Journal of Natural History Museum, 30, 55-84. https://doi.org/10.3126/jnhm.v30i0.27538
[18]	Tsering, J., Tam, N., Tag, H., Gogoi, B.J. and Apang, O. (2017) Medicinal Orchids of Arunachal Pradesh: A Review. Bulletin of Arunachal Forest Research, 32, 1-16. http://sfribulletin.org.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Vol.-3212-1-16.pdf
[19]	Vaidya, B., Shrestha, M. and Joshee, N. (2000) Report on Nepalese Orchid Species with Medicinal Properties. Proceeding of Nepal-Japan Joint Symposium-2000, Kathmandu, 146-152.
[20]	Pant, B., Paudel, M.R., Chand, M.B., Pradhan, S., Malla, B.B. and Raskoti, B.B. (2018) Orchid Diversity in Two Community Forests of Makawanpur District, Central Nepal. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 10, 12523-12530.
[21]	Pant, B., Ram Paudel, M. and Raj Joshi, P. (2021) Orchids as Potential Sources of Anticancer Agents: Our Experience. Annapurna Journal of Health Sciences, 1, 42-51. https://doi.org/10.52910/ajhs.17
[22]	Arditti, J. (1967) Factors Affecting the Germination of Orchid Seeds. The Botanical Review, 33, 1-97. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02858656
[23]	Kasulo, V., Mwabumba, L. and Cry, M. (2009) A Review of Edible Orchids in Malawi. Journal of Horticulture and Forestry, 1, 133-139.
[24]	Pradhan, S., Tiruwa, B.L., Subedee, B.R. and Pant, B. (2015) Micropropagation of Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) SW., a Medicinal Orchid by Artificial Seeds Technology. Journal of Natural History Museum, 28, 42-48. https://doi.org/10.3126/jnhm.v28i0.14166
[25]	Acharya, K.P. and Rokaya, M.B. (1970) Medicinal Orchids of Nepal: Are They Well Protected? Our Nature, 8, 82-91. https://doi.org/10.3126/on.v8i1.4315
[26]	Joshi, G.C., Tewari, L.M., Lohani, N., Upreti, K., Jalal, J.S. and Tewari, G. (2009) Diversity of Orchids in Uttarakhand and Their Conservation Strategy with Special Reference to Their Medicinal Importance. Report and Opinion, 1, 47-52.
[27]	Gutiarrez-Miceli, F.A., Ayora-Talavera, T., Abud-Archila, M., Salvador-Figueroa, M., Adriano-Anaya, L., Arias Hernandez, M.L., et al. (2008) Acclimatization of Micropropagated Orchid Guarianthe skinnerii Inoculated with Trichoderma harzianum. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences, 7, 327-330. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajps.2008.327.330
[28]	Pradhan, S., Tiruwa, B., Subedee, B.R. and Pant, B. (2014) In vitro Germination and Propagation of a Threatened Medicinal Orchid, Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. through Artificial Seed. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 4, 971-976. https://doi.org/10.12980/apjtb.4.2014apjtb-2014-0369
[29]	Pant, B., Shah, S., Shrestha, R., Pandey, S. and Joshi, P.R. (2017) An Overview on Orchid Endophytes. In: Varma, A., Prasad, R. and Tuteja, N., Eds., Mycorrhiza— Nutrient Uptake, Biocontrol, Ecorestoration, Springer, 503-524. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68867-1_26
[30]	Rao, A. (1997) Tissue Culture in the Orchid Industry. In: Rao, A., Ed., Applied and Fudamental Aspects of Plant Cell, Tissue, and Organ Culture. Mc Graw-Hill, 44-69.
[31]	NTNC-CODEFUND (2016) Annapurna Conservation Area Management Plan (2016 to 2020) Final Draft. National Trust for Nature Conservation. Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal.
[32]	DNPWC (2018) Protected Areas of Nepal. Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation, Babarmahal, Kathmandu, Nepal.
[33]	Tiruwa, B.L., Subedi, A. and Gurung, R.K. (2022) Floristic Diversity of Vascular Plants in Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), Gandaki Province, Nepal. Journal of Plant Resources, 20, 40-49. https://doi.org/10.3126/bdpr.v20i2.56973
[34]	Baral, R. (2018) Birds of Annapurna Conservation Area. Natioanal Trust for Nature Conservation, Annapurna Conservation Area Project, Pokhara, Nepal. https://ntnc.org.np/publication/birds-annapurna-conservation-area
[35]	KMTNC-ACAP (1994) Annapurna Conservation Area Biodiversity Conservation Data Project—Final Report. National Trust for Nature Conservation, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal.
[36]	NTNC (2017) Non-Timbere Forest Products (NTFPs) Inventory and Sustainable Harvesting Plan for ACA. National Trust for Nature Conservation, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal.
[37]	Chetri, M., Chapagain, N.R. and Neupane, B.D. (2006) Flowers of Mustang: A Pictorial Guidebook. National Trust for Nature Conservation, Annapurna Conservation Area Project, Upper Mustang Biodiversity Conservation Project. Kathmandu, Nepal.
[38]	Chapagain, N.R. and Chetri, M. (2006) Biodiversity Profile of Upper Mustang. National Trust for Nature Conservation, Annapurna Conservation Area Project, Upper Mustang Biodiversity Conservation Project, Kathmandu, Nepal.
[39]	Press, J.R., Shrestha, K.K. and Sutton, D.A. (2000) Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal. The Natural History Museum, London. http://www.efloras.org/browse.aspx?flora_id=110&start_taxon_id=10052
[40]	Maden, K., et al. (2019) Biodiversity Study of Narchyang and Its Vicinities of Annapurna Conservation Area, Myagdi District, Nepal, Robust Energy Ltd. Pani Pokhari, Kathmandu, Nepal.
[41]	Khakurel, D., Uprety, Y. and Rajbhandary, S. (2020) Floristic Diversity of Vascular Plants in Sikles Region of Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. Journal of Plant Resources, 18, 102-115.
[42]	Paneru, Y.R. and Ghimire, S.K. (2019) Floristic Diversity of Vascular Plants in Gyasumbdo Valley, Lower Manang, Central Nepal. Journal of Plant Resources, 17, 42-57. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336651666
[43]	Adhikari, M., Thapa, R., Kunwar, R.M., Devkota, H.P. and Poudel, P. (2019) Ethnomedicinal Uses of Plant Resources in the Machhapuchchhre Rural Municipality of Kaski District, Nepal. Medicines, 6, Article 69. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines6020069
[44]	Raskoti, B.B. and Kurzweil, H. (2015) Odontochilus nandae (Orchidaceae; Cranichideae; Goodyerinae), a New Species from Nepal. Phytotaxa, 233, 293-297. https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.233.3.7
[45]	Subedi, A., Kunwar, B., Choi, Y., Dai, Y., van Andel, T., Chaudhary, R.P., et al. (2013) Collection and Trade of Wild-Harvested Orchids in Nepal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 9, Article No. 64. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-64
[46]	Bhattarai, S., Chaudhary, R.P. and Taylor, R.S. (2006) Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by the People of Manang District, Central Nepal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2, Article No. 41. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-41
[47]	Nandwani, D., Jamarkattel, D., Dahal, K.R., Poudel, R., Giri, S. and Joshi, T.N. (2021) Attitudes of Fruit and Vegetable Farmers towards Organic Farming in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Sustainability, 13, Article 3888. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073888
[48]	KATH (2022) National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH), Herbarium Plant Data Base. http://www.plantdatabase.gov.np/
[49]	Pant, B., Chaudhary, R.P., Subedi, L.R. and Shakya, A. (2002) Nepalese Himalayan Orchids and the Conservation Priorities. Proceeding of International Seminar on Mountains, 6-10 March 2002, 485-495.
[50]
[51]	References
[52]	Ornamental Use Ref.: 1. Rajbhanadri, 2014.
[53]	Medicinal Use Ref.: 1. Tsering et al., 2017; 2. Rajbhandari, 2014; 3. Pant, 2013; 4. Pant et al., 2013; 5. Archarya et al., 2010; & 6. Vaidya et al., 2002.
[54]	Species Ref.: 1. Field survery data of Bhujung; 2. Field survey data of Manang; 3. National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH), 2021; 4. Maden et al., 2019; 5. Chalise et al., 2019; 6. Khakurel et al., 2020; 7. Chtetri et al., 2006; 8. Old data of ACA; 9. Chapagain et al., 2006 & 10. Data from Lwang UCO.