Socio-Cultural Factors and Women’s Representation in Political Leadership: Case Study Mbale City Councils ()
1. Introduction
This chapter contains the background of the study, the problem statement; the purpose of the study, objectives, research questions, the scope of the study, justification, significance of the study, conceptual framework and the definition of the key concept.
1.1. Background
Women’s attachment in politics fluctuates all through the world and their involvement in political leadership and democratic practice has become an essential part of modern dialogue in development and governance. World over, women still stay behind on the fringes of the political realm and their participation in government structures and democratic process remains low (Aciro and Kopoka, 2019) [1] . Global statistics disclose that only 22% of all national parliamentarians were female, a sluggish increase from 11.3% in 1995 and the share of women among Ministers now averages at 17% (UN Women 2015) [2] . The strengthening of women’s participation in all spheres of life has become a major issue in the development dialogues and hence socio-economic development cannot be fully achieved without the active participation of women at the decision-making level in all society, improving women’s political representation in political leadership, may help to advance political development and improve the quality of women’s lives in the modern societies today (Endale, 2012) [3] .
Women’s representation in political leadership is a constitutional right in the world and this is in line with democratic principles in modern politics. In democratic countries like USA, UK, Germany and France, women have the rights to participate and represent their people as well as enjoy the liberty to realize their potential in leadership (Mlamboand Kapingura, 2019a) [4] . However, United Nations report (2019) [5] revealed that in some countries like South Arabia, Nigeria, Uganda, India and Vietnam women’s representation in political leadership and decision-making at both local and national levels is limited. Zinyemba (2013) [6] elaborated that women are poorly represented at senior political office levels in Zimbabwe and limited in decision-making at both local and national in the development process of the country.
Lokoro (2018) [7] revealed that more women in politics leads to more inclusive decisions and can change people’s image of what a leader looks like, added Ms. Mlambo-Ngcuka, formerly a minister and Deputy President in South Africa. Among the top African countries with a high percentage of women in ministerial positions are Rwanda (51.9%), South Africa (48.6%), Ethiopia (47.6%), Seychelles (45.5%), Uganda (36.7%) and Mali (34.4%). Lokoro (2018) [7] emphasized that the lowest percentage in Africa was in Morocco (5.6%), which has only one female minister in a cabinet of 18. Other countries with fewer than 10% women ministers include Nigeria (8%), Mauritius (8.7%) and Sudan (9.5%). Notably, Rwanda, the world leader in the number of women in parliament, saw a slight reduction in their number, from 64% in 2017 to 61.3% in 2018. Other African countries with high percentages of women MPs include Namibia (46.2%), South Africa (42.7%) and Senegal (41.8%), according to the report.
Mbale Municipality local government report (2017) [8] statistics revealed that in the local government council elections of 2011/16 women who participated in politics for councilor were 12 raising 44% and men 15 leading to 56% making it a total of 27 councilors including the youth, person with a disability and women’s representatives in the council. A local government report (2022) [9] indicates that statistically women’s political representation in the general local government council elections of 2021 in the Mbale City was 39% while men were leading by 61% in all the two City divisions namely; Northern Division, and Industrial Division in Mbale City councils. This evidently, shows that women’s political representation is still wanting in Mbale City councils.
However, in behaviorist theory, O’Neil et al. (2015) [10] argued that a person’s leadership abilities are a product of their environment regardless of gender, education and status. Meanwhile, Chowdhury (2013) [11] elaborated that Normative political theory focuses on realizing how the cultural, and social, values of citizens perceive the ideal form of government and how it influences political phenomena. It is based on the people and what they believe is the best route of action for political leadership in the government.
According to Voller (2016) [12] , in Muslim countries like South Sudan and Egypt, women are not supported financially and religiously in leadership positions beside the political system of their country has ignored their rights to vote and be voted. Doepke M (2011) [13] confirmed that women’s choices and preferences are bounded by concrete individual and collective experiences and consciousness about gender roles and injustice in the world today. However, a countries like Libya, Kenya, and Uganda women are politically empowered but at the same time being affected in the decision-making process which has affected their existence in leadership. The constitutions of Kenya, give women the right to vote and be voted however gender disparities in education and lack of confidence in leadership participation have affected their magnitude in political leadership.
In contrast, Lokoro (2018) [7] argued that women earning lower wages are more likely to face social sanctions when they do not maintain their employment as they raise their children and limited finances to support them in the political leadership process in the world today. Reflecting these social sanctions, restricted household resources, and their lack of power in the workplace, lower-class women are more likely to forego highly gendered mothering as an alternating daily between low-paying employment and unpaid care work at home.
When the National Resistance Army captured state power in 1986 in Uganda, it found that women’s representation in political leadership had been disfranchised by previous governments. The government through international treaties has put more efforts into strengthening women’s empowerment by promoting gender equality in education and every sphere of life for sustainable development and participating in the decision-making process of their country (Chenoy, 2012) [14] . Despite the above efforts put by the government of Uganda and its constitution women’s representation in political leadership in Mbale City councils has remained low.
According to the Ministry of Local Government report (2022) [9] women’s representation in political leadership has declined to 44% in the entire country. The report further indicates that in Mbale City including City divisions women’s representation in political leadership has declined to 39% in the region. The Uganda Registration Service Bureau report (2022) revealed that women’s representation in Mbale City is 36% in the councilor’s positions, while males had 64%. The report further indicates that women’s representatives in parliament rose to 35% in Mbale City.
Government Act, Cap 243 section (110) and (117) provides for women’s representation on all committees in the council however, women’s leadership in politics is still wanted in Mbale City Council. Some studies done by EACEA (Folke & Rickne, 2012) [15] argued that socio-cultural factors, financial status, education and gender inequalities in developing countries have massively limited women empowerment in every sphere of their lives, leaving millions of women privileged in the political sphere in the modern society. This study, therefore analyzed the extent to which socio-cultural factors affect women’s representation in political leadership in Mbale City Council.
1.2. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework was developed after a review of related literature on the study variables. It showed the relationship between the study variables under investigation. The independent variable was socio-cultural factors with women’s representation in political leadership as the dependent variable. The model showed that socio-cultural factors affect women’s representation in political leadership in Mbale City. Socio-cultural factors were measured in the form of gender relations, religion and social classes. The framework showed the different determinants of women’s representation in political leadership which included the Number of women representatives, Deliberations in political decision-making avenues, National Policy making and Political party decisions in Mbale City councils. (Figure 1)
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Figure 1. Conceptual framework shows the relationship between socio-cultural factors and Women’s representation in political leadership in Mbale City councils. Source: the conceptual framework is adopted from Aciro and Kopoka, (2019) [1] , modified by Fakhri, M. (2023).
In most developed countries right to culture plays a key role in the increase of sustainable development however, in developing countries like Uganda, it has affected women in every sphere of life in Mbale City. Therefore, the study attempted to establish the extent to which socio-cultural factors affect women’s representation in political leadership in Mbale City Council. In this study women’s representation in political leadership was the variable of interest in which the variance tried to explain.
2. Methodology
Grey, 2014 [16] Cited in Boru, (2018:1) explained that research design sets the procedure on the required data, the methods to be applied to collect and analyze this data and shows how all this is going to answer the research question.
According to Zangirolami-Raimundo (2018) [17] a cross-sectional design is a research plan that is concerned with logical description of the individuality of an event, place, and population being studied at a given time. Cross-sectional design is relatively cheap and less time-consuming than other types of research design. Cross-sectional studies allow the researcher to collect data from a large pool of subjects and compare differences between groups. Data is collected all at once, so participants are less likely to quit the study before data is fully collected.
For that reason, the study adopted a cross-sectional research design with both quantitative and qualitative approaches as a way of triangulating and enhancing the quality of the study findings. This design was adopted after a review of diverse kinds of literature by different authors who discussed limitations and strengths of other research designs. This Cross-sectional research design helped to triangulate the relationship between independent and dependent variables of the study. It is a suggested design when using mixed research methods. Israel (2016) [18] confirmed that a mixed research method is used in order to enlarge the comprehending of the report by integrating both quantitative and qualitative research approaches to better understand and explain the results from both approaches. The use of quantitative research approach is enclosed by using numbers through close-ended questions. A questionnaire is simply a ‘tool’ for collecting and recording information regarding a particular issue of concern. It is mostly made up of a list of questions but also includes clear instructions and space for answers. In this case, the researcher used the quantitative approach that involved structured questionnaires which are usually associated with quantitative research (Taherdoost, 2022) [19] . A qualitative approach, on the other hand, is associated with using words or open-ended questions that involve interviews that help to generate relevant information from a wide segment of respondents to understand their thinking about sociocultural factors and women’s representation in political leadership. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were justified on the basis of the end result where conclusions were based on real analyses. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were therefore relevant to this study since the researcher met conditions of using mixed research method.
The sample size of 311 respondents was selected from a target population of 377 respondents. This sample size was determined using Slovene’s formula to establish the actual respondents who participated in the study. Slovene’s formula is used to calculate the sample size (n) given the population size (N) and a margin of error (e). It is a random sampling technique formula to estimate sampling size. It is computed as n = N/(1 + Ne)2. It is usually impossible to survey every member in a large population because of money and time that is why in this research Slovene’s formula is very relevant to be used in categorizing the actual respondents for data collection. The formula adopted a confidence level of 95% and the margin of error which is therefore 5% acceptable in social science research.
where:
a) Executive Committee,
b) City Councilors,
c) Cultural leaders,
d) Members of parliament,
e) Human right officers,
f) LCI-II-III and LCV Mbale City,
g) City division councilors Northern,
g) City division councilors Industrial,
The above calculation was used to determine how the sample size of 311 was established out of 377 using the Slovene’s Formula for each group in Mbale City and the City divisions namely: Northern and industrial divisions. (Table 1)
Eatock (2019a) [20] explains that stratified sampling is a type of sampling method in which the total population is divided into smaller groups or strata to complete the sampling process. The stratum is formed based on some common characteristics in the population data. After dividing the population into strata, the researcher randomly selected the sample proportionally. Stratified random sampling is a useful method for data collection if the population is heterogeneous. In this method, the entire population was divided into a number of uniform groups, usually known as Strata, each of these groups is homogeneous within itself, and then units were sampled at random from each of these stratums and after stratification, sampling was conducted separately in each stratum. In terms of stratified the various categories of respondents such as the members of parliaments, the executive board of Mbale City the members of parliaments and Councilors formed the strata from which the sample was drawn based on proportionate simple random sampling method.
George, T. (2022) [21] explained that simple random sampling is used to make statistical inferences about a population. It helps ensure high internal validity. In addition, with a large enough sample size; a simple random sample has high external validity; it represents the characteristics of the larger population. Based on the above reasons, the researchers had several steps to follow when it comes to simple random sampling in order to clarify the steps taken to establish simple random sampling. The researcher randomly selected respondents in Mbale City who were part of the study during data collection, because it was very difficult for the researcher to use the whole target population for data collection. This method helped the researcher to eliminate bias in the study, since it gave respondents equal chances of participation. In order to analyze the survey data, descriptive and inferential statistical methods was applied to establish the effect of socio-cultural factors on women’s representation in political leadership in Mbale City council.
Source: Mbale City Council report, (2022).
Purposive sampling is a form of non-probability sampling in which researchers rely on their own judgment when choosing members of the population to participate in their surveys. This research sampling method requires the researcher to have prior knowledge about the purpose of the study so that they can properly choose and approach eligible participants (Tegan and Merkus, 2022) [22] . Therefore, in this study, purposive sampling was done face-to-face interaction, which generated relevant information to support the quantitative results. Purposive sampling helped the researcher to generate a sample of participants with relevant knowledge and experience in the phenomena under investigation that involved; speakers (6), LCI-II-III and LCV chairpersons in the City and divisions (34), Cultural leaders (4), Religious leaders (4), human right officers in Mbale City (2) and political party leaders in Mbale City Council (14) in Mbale City and the two City divisions namely: Northern and industrial division.
Ching-Yu Huang (2019) [23] explains that the data collection method is the process of assembly and measuring information on targeted variables in an established systematic style which enables one to answer relevant questions and evaluate outcomes using either quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods. Therefore, this study involved a mixed data collection method way both quantitative and qualitative were used in order to gather relevant information in the field.
According to Kigenyi, (2017) [24] measurement is the method of assigning numbers to different degrees of explanation, views and mindset about variables and the level of measurement as a function of the rules under which the numbers are assigned. For the questionnaire in this study, the variables under “socio-cultural factors and women’s representation in political leadership” were measured using a 4-point Likert scale format to adopt and modify the study according to the specific objectives. The Likert scale technique was used to assign a scale value to statements of the chosen dimensions of socio-cultural factors which measured respondent’s reality towards the given point of view.
The opinions used were generated from the literature review of the study. The questionnaires were divided into sections based on the constructs of socio-cultural factors and women’s representation accordingly: The structured questionnaires were prepared to refer on various literatures. There were four sections in the questionnaire. The first section (Part-A) presented the bio-data of respondents which was needed for understanding the statements, section (Part-B) measured the items of each specific objective. Sections (Part-C) measured the status of women’s representation in political leadership in Mbale City.
The study analyzed responses from the Likert scale of the questionnaire, means and standard deviation were generated through the SPSS (version 23) using linear regression and an appropriate scale to interpret the means. Interpretation of results from the normal least square regression analysis was based on the standard regression (0.05). When the standard is below, that means that socio-cultural factors are a significant and positive contributor to women’s representation in political leadership but when the standard is above, that means that socio-cultural factors are not a significant determinant of women’s representation in political leadership in Mbale City council. Generally, the scale was hinged on the categorization in Table 2 below.
The present study provided well-designed and administered questionnaires that were necessary to address research questions. To ensure easy analysis in this study, questionnaires were coded according to each variable of the study to ensure accuracy during analysis. Descriptive, Minimum, Maximum, Mean, and standard deviation through regression analysis and inferential statistics were established. The quantitative data from the questionnaires was subjected to statistical analysis using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, Version 23) to reduce data, summarize it and make the most important facts and relationships apparent for descriptive and inferential data analysis. The analysis started with the computing of variable analysis, after computing the variable the researcher analyzed data and checked the validity and reliability of the scale. Correlation and regression analysis were used for all specific objectives respectively. This analysis was
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Table 2. Scale for interpretation of the mean value range.
conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), (23.0 Version). Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, which included frequencies and percentages also inferential statistics was also used to establish the regression method. This analysis was used to determine the relationship that exists between dependent and independent variables while regression was used to describe the relationship and the effect between socio-cultural factors and women’s representation in political leadership. These descriptive statistics enabled the researcher to describe variables numerically. The results from the analysis are presented using tables to provide an accurate picture of the research findings.
3. Results of the Study
The researcher further summarized the findings of religion, gender relations and social classes in order to find out the extent to which socio-cultural factors affect women’s representation in political leadership. A long the way multiple regressions was done to establish the correlation and the effect of independent and dependent variables which structured the general objective of the study.
The study disclosed that socio-cultural factors affect women’s representation in political leadership, it extended the explanation that 61% of respondents were in agreement that socio-cultural factors affect women’s representation in political leadership and 39% of respondents were in disagreement that socio-cultural factors do not affect women’s representation political leadership in Mbale City Councils. To establish the effect of socio-cultural factors on women’s representation in political leadership, a simple regression analysis was carried out (Table 3). The results exposed that the correlation between socio-cultural factors and women’s representation in political leadership is 61.3% at p = 0.000 in Mbale City Councils. This implies that socio-cultural factors have a strong relationship in determining women’s empowerment in society and enable them to participate in national development policies and contribute to their national and social development in the Country. This was identified as a significant determinant that can drive women’s empowerment either negative or positive. In terms of effect, the findings disclosed that socio-cultural factors significantly affect women’s representation in political leadership in Mbale City Councils.
The result shows that the interviews conducted by the researcher in Mbale City Councils were in line with the quantitative analysis of the study. When respondents were asked to give their opinions about socio-cultural factors and women’s representation in political leadership, the interviewee Mrs. J remarked that;
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Table 3. Regression Model Summary of socio-cultural factors on women’s representation in political leadership in Mbale City Councils.
a. Predictors: (Constant), SC, R, G. Source: data analysis 2023.
“socially in our communities, women are not economically empowered because when you look at the payment system women suffer from low salary even when you have gone for further studies. So we are financially classified with men. Even in our political parties we belong it is hard to find a party president who is a woman and if we cannot practice leadership within our political parties how perfect are we going to hand it at the national level, it becomes difficult. We do fail in leadership not because we cannot make it but because our tradition as Bamasaba does not support us. Our religion as Muslims, catholic, Pentecostal all these are obstacles to us, women and that is why socially we are classified as people who are supposed to bear children at home”. (Interviews conducted in Mbale City on 15/08/2023)
The study done by Aciro and Kopoka, (2019) [1] who investigated Factors Affecting Women’s Participation in Political Party Leadership in Uganda, the results revealed that the financial limitations, low level of education and party system contributed to the failure of women to stand for political leadership, the study further revealed some factors like insufficient finances hinder women’s participation in political leadership, it further revealed that the social factors like finances and education have a positive significant across all the sphere women in leadership. Similarly, the study done by Goetz (2013) [25] on women’s education and political participation, revealed that education plays a positive role in promoting and empowering women to hold political positions in the community. The study further shows that women’s education is a significant determinant on their representation in political leadership.
On the other hand, a study done by Endale A. (2012) [3] on the factors that affect Women Participation in Leadership and Decision Making Positions, revealed gender relations are not a significant determinants on women’s representation in political leadership. In his study, the findings further indicated that sociocultural factors such as gender relations are insignificant on women’s representation in political leadership.
The research findings of socio-cultural factors revealed a significant on women’s representation in political leadership in Mbale City Councils. The results of the study further indicate that political systems in Mbale City do not support women’s leadership in politics, beside that the education level of a woman determines her capacity to compete with male counterpart in the political arenas in Uganda. Many women in the world today are struggling to compete with men in political leadership positions but the environment to which women grow up does not support the idea due to traditional beliefs that impose leadership discrimination and injustices in society. In developing countries, women are not given the mandate to own properties and have control over finances that can enable them run a smooth campaign for political leadership positions. Though the government of Uganda is trying to empower women in political leadership but the traditional beliefs in the community are still strong determinants of the role and responsibilities of man and woman. Socio and economic factors have strong influenced the participation of women in political leadership. Women fall short of finances as they are economically disadvantaged, they are the majority poor yet they participate in political leadership. This disadvantages them as political position requires a lot of resources while domestic responsibilities burden women with many roles in both the private and public sphere, hence hindering women’s representation in political leadership which needs a lot of time and commitment. However, the results further expose that cultural leaders and religious leaders have perspectives on women’s representation in political leadership. The paper argues that complete and equivalent representation of both women and men in political decision-making provides a balance that more precisely replicates the composition of society, and enhances the legality of political development by making them more democratic and receptive to the concerns and perspectives of all segments of society. Though socio-cultural factors segregate a particular gender in the society, policies set by the government have also failed to act sufficiently in order to increase women empowerment and successful representation in political leadership in Mbale City Councils.
4. Recommendations and Suggestions
4.1. Recommendations from the Study
Since this study points out that there is a positive and significant effect of socio-cultural factors on women’s representation in political leadership in Mbale City Councils; this study recommends that.
It further recommended that there is a need for governments to engage political parties to ensure that they comprise more women on their candidates list. Political parties should become the institutional vehicle through which women’s representation in political leadership is enhanced especially in facilitating their participation within party structures and over election periods.
The electoral commissions and political parties need to engage women through awareness campaigns. Women need to be educated and informed that political participation is not limited to election campaigns. They should be informed that for political involvement to be broad there should be equal participation by both women and men. Religious and cultural leaders should cooperate with the government in order to provide more funds to independent female politicians and encourage them to fully embrace political leadership.
Political parties should have a considerable and accepted number of female political candidates in their party. This will make political parties involve more women in political offices that can enable them to represent their fellow women in society.
Social problems hindering women’s representation in political leadership should be addressed in order to remove women from being marginalized by men in the society. This helps women get free from the social injustices and discriminations which make them look inferior to men.
The governments of Uganda should promote the economic unrestraint of women. When women are economically emancipated, they will be able to make their decisions independently and this may lay concrete on the way for them to enter politics without being restricted by their male counterparts.
4.2. Suggestions for Further Studies
The current research was based on study was to establish the extent to which socio-cultural factors affect women’s representation in political leadership in Mbale City Councils, it is therefore, suggested that further studies be done on the effect of traditional believes on women’s capabilities to participate political activities in their political party since the current research was restricted to Mbale City Councils.
A comparable study is recommended on the influence of political party system on women’s participation in political leadership in Eastern Uganda since the current research was restricted to Mbale City Councils.
It is suggested that further studies be done on the effect of religious ideologies on promoting women’s rights in political leadership in Uganda since the current research was limited to Mbale City Councils.
It is suggested that further studies be done on the influence of education on women’s empowerment in Uganda since qualitative and quantitative findings in the present research were inconsistent with some local and international empirical studies and the present study was only restricted to Mbale City Councils.
A similar study is recommended on the influence of family environment on women’s capacity building in political leadership in African since the existing research was limited to Uganda, Mbale City Councils.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Almighty God for giving me the opportunity to undertake and complete this research. I give Him thanks and praise. I would also like to extend my sincere and heartfelt appreciation to my research editor: Dr. Muwereza Nathan and Madam Besiima Gertrude for their commitment. Special thanks go to research overseer Dr. Mulyanyuma Aaron for all his guidance expertise and time, he tirelessly accepted to guide and make me see ideas from an interactive academic engagement. My gratitude was extended to research analysis moderator Dr. Badaza Rose. I will forever remain indebted to Dr. Badaza Rose whose sharp and analytical mind ensured that there were no flaws in my data analysis. I extend my gratitude to my research motivator Madam Gloria Angela Mukova and Dr. Stephen Mungoma for giving me the courage and helping me navigate some rough waters during this program. In a special way, I thank my family for the endless support and prayers.
I am also deeply grateful to research facilitator Vice Chancellor Kumi for his financial support and encouragement to his staff in the academic arena. Gratitude goes to all my participants in Mbale City Councils who willingly accepted to give me the required information that stirred this research to its completion.
May other people be as caring and helpful to them as they have been to me!
The Author and the Contributors of the Research
The main researcher/author: Fakhri Mohamed;
The research editor: Dr. Muwereza Nathan and Madam Besiima Gertrude;
The research overseer Dr. Mulyanyuma Aaron;
The research analysis moderator Dr. Badaza Rose and Mr. Fakhri Mohamed;
The research motivator Madam Gloria Angela Mukova and Dr. Stephen Mungoma;
The research facilitator Vice Chancellor Kumi University Dr. Hong.