The Job Satisfaction Antecedents of South African School Teachers: A Follow-Up Review ()
1. Introduction
The complex construct of job satisfaction and the interplay between schoolteachers has been receiving great attention from scholars over the past two decades. Schoolteachers and the profession of teaching are facing high rates of schoolteacher attrition (Edinger & Edinger, 2018 [1] ; Shibiti, 2019 [2] ; Shibiti, 2020 [3] ) and burnout (Iancu, et al., 2018 [4] ; Kariou, et al., 2021 [5] ; Perrone, et al., 2019 [6] ; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2020 [7] ), which places continuous strain on education systems (Chesak, et al., 2019 [8] ; Iancu, et al., 2018 [4] ). The aforementioned problems are often attributed to, explained by, and closely related to levels of schoolteacher job satisfaction (Lopes & Oliviera, 2020 [9] ; Madigan & Kim, 2021 [10] ; McInerney et al., 2018 [11] ; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2020 [7] ; Toropova, et al., 2021 [12] ). Moreover, adding to the complexity are the numerous antecedents that accompany job satisfaction, that directly or indirectly contribute to, moderate, or regulate the overall levels of schoolteacher job satisfaction (Burić & Moè, 2020 [13] ; Capone & Petrillo, 2020 [14] ; Edinger & Edinger, 2018 [1] ; McInerney, et al., 2018 [11] ).
1.1. The Basic Education Sector of South Africa
The basic education sector in South Africa is recognized as a multi-faceted sector that is notorious for widespread disparities (Du Plessis & Mestry, 2019 [15] ; Van Dyk & White, 2019 [16] ). Recent statistics indicate that 447,123 school teachers currently serve 13,409,249 primary and high school learners within 24,894 private and public schools (Department of Basic Education [South Africa], 2021) [17] . Furthermore, schools are noticeably racially divided, and resource distribution between schools is fragmented. To address such disparities, the quintile ranking system was introduced (Van Dyk & White, 2019) [16] . The ranking systems rate schools from quintile 1 (poorest) to quintile 5 (affluent) schools. However, this rating system remains largely ineffective in addressing education sector issues (Ogbonnaya & Awuah, 2019 [18] ; Van Dyk & White, 2019 [16] ). Notwithstanding that quintile rankings are mutually exclusive to the schools situated in different geographical areas (Van Dyk & White, 2019) [16] . Furthermore, schools in specific geographical areas or districts face individual and community difficulties apart from broader societal, political, and economic difficulties, while simultaneously attempting to ensure quality basic education (Bantwini, 2019 [19] ; Steyn, 2013 [20] ). Christie (2020) [21] summarized this as schools being entangled within the broader political economy and social world which are most likely to replicate their systemic context rather than bring forth change to improve quality learning experiences for school learners. This creates the need to understand the contextual challenges that schoolteachers face on various levels that influence job satisfaction (Du Plessis & Mestry, 2019 [15] ; Edinger & Edinger, 2018 [1] ).
1.2. Lack of Job Satisfaction Interventions
Based on a prior scope review by De Klerk, et al. (2023) [22] , the researchers found a significant lack of scientifically recorded interventions that address the job satisfaction of South African schoolteachers. Two studies were identified through systematic database searches: Fourie (2006) [23] aimed to increase levels of job satisfaction by equipping school managerial teams, and Graham (2000) [24] evaluated levels of job satisfaction after an initial intervention was implemented. However, from the systematic search, the researchers found numerous literature sources relating to the same topic, yet these literature sources lacked the practical implementation of interventions and focused on exploring, interpreting, or describing South African schoolteacher job satisfaction and antecedents. The researchers noted a need for the formulation of successful interventions that consider the uniqueness of the South African education sector. Subsequently, from the prior scope review process, highlighted by the richness of theoretical literature, two follow-up research questions arose (De Klerk, et al., 2023, p. 1211) [22] : “1) What are the various antecedents that impede job satisfaction of schoolteachers in South Africa? 2) How could job satisfaction interventions be formulated to have the best results?”
2. Methods
2.1. Review Design
This follow-up review followed the same methodological approach as De Klerk, et al. (2023) [22] . A scoping review is an approach that indicates the extent of available literature on a specific subject (Munn, et al., 2018) [25] . The authors also suggested the following purposes when conducting scoping reviews that applied to this review on the job satisfaction of South African schoolteachers. 1) Identifying the type of literature available. 2) Examining how research regarding the subject is conducted. 3) Identifying key factors that relate to the subject. 4) Identifying and analyzing current research gaps. This scoping review provides a holistic depiction of the past and current literature regarding the antecedents of schoolteacher job satisfaction in South Africa following the lack of scientifically recorded interventions.
2.2. Search and Selection Procedure
The researchers conducted a focused search utilizing the EBSCO Discovery Service (EDS) as provided by the North-West University Library and Information Service. The EDS service grants access to numerous academic scholarly databases. The databases accessed during the search include 73 databases at the time of the search. Keywords were utilized to identify literature sources for possible inclusion: schoolteachers or school educators, and job satisfaction or work satisfaction or job dissatisfaction or work dissatisfaction, and intervention or program/programme, and South Africa or South African. The prior scope review search was revisited and relevant literature sources that relate to job satisfaction were selected from the same sample pool (see De Klerk, et al., 2023) [22] . To further include resources, the researchers conducted a hand search utilizing the same keywords. Figure 1 illustrates the search strategy and outlines the rationale for the final selection of literature.
2.3. Data Synthesis
Data were synthesized following the purpose of scope reviews as proposed by Munn, et al. (2018) [25] . Firstly, data was extracted to provide a scope of the aim, method(s) and measurement(s), sample, and characteristics of schools to examine how previous research was conducted on the job satisfaction of schoolteachers (Table 1). Consequently, Table 1 provides readers with a summarized version of included literature and assisted the reviewers during the reviewing of the literature. Furthermore, the data extracted also provided clarity regarding the methodological soundness of the included literature. Secondly, key findings, identified from the included literature, are provided as sources of dissatisfaction (antecedents) in Table 2. Thus, Table 2 provides a general overview of the sources of dissatisfaction as identified in the included literature and further depicts the general overlap of the identified sources of dissatisfaction across the data. The overlap further emphasizes the general consensus of the sources of dissatisfaction as depicted in the literature on schoolteacher job satisfaction in the South African context.
2.4. Ensuring Quality of the Data
All literature searches from the initial search were screened for relevance firstly by title and abstract and upon uncertainty, the full-text literature sources were screened. The screening and selection process was conducted twice. A final sample of (n = 17) literature sources was included. Per predetermined appraisal prompts, as proposed by Dixon-Woods, et al. (2006) [43] , the researchers excluded one literature source as the methodological alignment of the article was not conducive to the attempt to provide reliable findings in the current review. The reviewers engaged with the data over an adequate period.
2.5. Data Analysis
A thematic analysis was employed to provide a thematic synthesis of the identified
![]()
Table 1. Characteristics of studies.
Note. *Literature was indicative of the consequences of job satisfaction and did not directly investigate potential sources of job satisfaction.
antecedents of job satisfaction. The reviewers followed the steps as per Braun and Clarke (2006) [44] . All literature sources were read and re-read and followed up by generating codes across the dataset. The original codes were independently generated by two researchers (WdK and RdT). The codes were then grouped into themes that carry the same meaning; the researcher also ensured that the generated themes were substantiated by the included literature sources. The themes generated were provided with thematic names, and an in-depth description that support the themes was presented.
2.6. Ethical Considerations
Following responsible and ethical knowledge production guidelines (Khumalo & De Klerk, 2018) [45] , the study was previously approved by the Health Research Ethics Committee (NWU-00289-21-A1), of the Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, South Africa. Following Munn, et al. (2018) [25] , the current review emanated from a knowledge gap identified during a prior scoping review and followed the same methodological process. The current review narrows the study to identifying key factors as well as examining how research with regard to job satisfaction among South African schoolteachers is conducted.
3. Findings and Discussion
3.1. Leadership and Educator Commitment
Nine studies noted that inadequate leadership from various school organizational sources or systems impedes job satisfaction. Inadequate supervision and mentoring from superiors are also major sources of dissatisfaction (Naidoo, 2019) [34] . School management teams can also not provide adequate support (psychological, emotional, social, or academic) as they are also not developed in these areas (Hlongwane, 2013) [30] . Lack of school leadership support or authoritarian leadership styles is a concern for schoolteachers (Dehaloo, 2011 [28] ; Naidoo, 2019 [34] ; Pule, 2015 [36] ). Authoritarian leadership creates an environment where a lack of autonomy is prevalent (Pizzolitto, et al., 2022) [46] . Schoolteachers who are provided with the opportunity to demonstrate autonomy and are involved in decision-making processes are more likely to be satisfied (Dehaloo, 2011 [28] ; Hlongwane, 2013 [30] ; Naidoo, 2019 [34] ; Pule, 2015 [36] ). South African schools were found to have the lowest degree of autonomy among 46 countries (Lassibille & Gómez; 2020) [31] . Conscious awareness of what influences schoolteacher job satisfaction should be at the forefront of leadership teams in schools. It should focus on more than just work, procedures, and execution of policies (Matla & Xaba, 2019) [33] .
Lack of support is also prevalent from the South African Department of Basic Education (DoE) district officials, and officials do not provide clear guidance to schoolteachers (Hlongwane, 2013 [30] ; Maforah & Schulze, 2012 [32] ; Okeke & Mtyuda, 2017 [35] ). Furthermore, policy changes without prior consultation create a sense of bureaucracy (Hlongwane, 2013 [30] & Maforah & Schulze, 2012 [32] ). Inadequate training, lack of career or professional development, and lack of career pathing were found to influence levels of job satisfaction (Botha & Hugo, 2021 [26] ; Bull, 2005 [27] ; Naidoo, 2019 [34] ; Okeke & Mtyuda, 2017 [35] ; Quan-Baffour & Arko-Achemfuor, 2014 [37] ). The DoE’s methods of training are not standardized and leave schoolteachers even more confused with job clarifications (Dludla, 2019) [29] . Naidoo (2019) [34] noted that training and professional development should be tailored to the needs of schoolteachers. Inadequate training and lack of career and professional development lead to unsuccessful teaching strategies, and schoolteachers do not have up-to-date and relevant knowledge or skills to educate school learners (Hlongwane, 2013) [30] . Career pathing is further restricted as school governing bodies and principals also influence the promotion of schoolteachers (Hlongwane, 2013) [30] .
The guidance and support from fellow schoolteachers also create a sense of a positive work environment that is conducive to educator commitment and job satisfaction (Botha & Hugo, 2021 [26] ; Naidoo, 2019 [34] ; Triegaardt & Hugo, 2020 [38] ). Matla and Xaba (2019) [33] and Vilakazi (2021) [39] support the notion that work relationships with fellow schoolteachers can regulate job satisfaction. Naidoo (2019) [34] does however caution that good interpersonal relationships with fellow schoolteachers should flow into work activities and not just remains on personal levels. Schoolteachers are also dissatisfied with the qualifications of fellow schoolteachers that hold a National Postgraduate Diploma in Education (Hlongwane, 2013) [30] .
Lack of recognition and respect for schoolteachers from educational administration serves as a source of dissatisfaction (Dludla, 2019 [29] ; Maforah & Schulze, 2012 [32] ). Schoolteachers value recognition and praise based on good performance and acknowledging good performance could enhance job satisfaction (Matla & Xaba, 2019 [33] ; Naidoo, 2019 [34] ; Triegaardt & Hugo, 2020 [38] ). Recognition from school learners is also deemed salient for schoolteachers (Vilakazi, 2021) [39] .
3.2. Schoolteacher Workload
Schoolteacher workload consists of various aspects such as teacher-learner ratios, the work of schoolteachers in itself, dual roles, and constant policy changes. High volumes of workloads contribute towards lower levels of job satisfaction (Dludla, 2019 [29] ; & Quan-Baffour & Arko-Achemfuor, 2014 [37] ). Hlongwane (2013) [30] also noted that high workloads are a significant source of stress. Peltzer, et al. (2009) [42] uncovered that job stress and lower levels of job satisfaction relate to stress-related illnesses. Additional roles add to the workload of schoolteachers (Vilakazi, 2021) [39] . Schoolteachers need to teach various subjects in which they are not specialized and the small number of schoolteachers available contributes towards the fact that schoolteachers need to teach various subjects simultaneously (Hlongwane, 2013 [30] ; Pule, 2015 [36] ).
Class sizes in South Africa are ranked in the bottom five of 46 countries, with an average class size of 38 school learners per class (Lassibille & Gómez; 2020) [31] . Pule (2015) [36] also found that class sizes range from 41 - 60, and schoolteachers cannot attend to the needs of school learners. Thus, four other studies also noted high school learner-teacher ratios (Dehaloo, 2011 [28] , Hlongwane, 2013 [30] , Matla & Xaba, 2019 [33] , Okeke & Mtyuda, 2017 [35] ). Teaching loads between schoolteachers and management staff are also unevenly distributed (Okeke & Mtyuda, 2017) [35] .
Schoolteachers find that they are underpaid with regard to their workload and believe their salaries are unfair (Bull, 2005 [27] , Dehaloo, 2011 [28] , Dludla, 2019 [29] ; Maforah and Schulze, 2012 [32] ; Okeke & Mtyuda, 2017 [35] ; Pule, 2015 [36] ). Matla and Xaba (2019) [33] noted that salaries could be regarded as a strong regulator for job dissatisfaction. Schoolteachers are also dissatisfied with the incentives they receive for working longer hours (Dludla, 2019) [29] .
Okeke and Mtyuda (2017) [35] also note that policy and practices from DoE cause higher levels of job dissatisfaction, which leads to concerning levels of schoolteacher disengagement. Keeping up to date with constant curricula changes as set by the DoE, further add to the workload. A lack of resources to implement new policies and curricula strains successful implementation (Dludla, 2019 [29] ; Maforah & Schulze, 2012 [32] ; Pule, 2015 [36] ).
3.3. School Learner and Parental Issues
Ten studies reported that school learner-related issues negatively impede schoolteacher job satisfaction. School learner-related issues identified include substance abuse (Dehaloo, 2011 [28] , Hlongwane, 2013 [30] ; Maforah & Schulze, 2012 [32] ; Pule, 2015 [36] ); academic underperforming of school learners (Dehaloo, 2011 [28] , Hlongwane, 2013 [30] ); poor work ethics amongst school learners (Dehaloo, 2011 [28] ; Dludla, 2019 [29] , Hlongwane, 2013 [30] ); violence within schools (Dludla, 2019 [29] ; Quan-Baffour & Arko-Achemfuor, 2014 [37] ); violence between factions in communities (Hlongwane, 2013) [30] ; non-adherence to school rules (Dludla, 2019 [29] ; Okeke & Mtyuda, 2017 [35] ), non-attendance of classes (Dludla, 2019 [29] ; Okeke & Mtyuda, 2017 [35] ), and destruction and theft of school property (Hlongwane, 2013) [30] . In turn, it is stated that motivated school learners motivate teachers (Dludla, 2019 [29] ; Vilakazi, 2021 [39] ). Poor academic achievements of South African school learners are also found to be in the bottom five of 46 countries moreover, South Africa demonstrates high levels of school learner behavioral problems (Lassibille & Gómez, 2020) [31] .
Five studies noted significant problems with parental involvement. Some parents may be illiterate and believe they cannot contribute to school learners’ education. Consequently, school learners need constant monitoring by schoolteachers (Pule, 2015) [36] . Pule (2015) [36] believes that this is a misperception amongst parents and that parents can still monitor school learner achievements. Parents were also found to be apathetic toward school learner success and reluctant to form partnerships with schools (Dehaloo, 2011 [28] ; Dludla, 2019 [29] ). Parents are also unwilling to actively participate in the discipline of their children (Dludla, 2019 [29] ; Hlongwane, 2013 [30] ; Maforah & Schulze, 2012 [32] ; Pule, 2015 [36] ).
3.4. Lack of School Infrastructure and Resources
Seven studies identified the lack of school infrastructure and resources as a source of schoolteacher job satisfaction. The DoE does not deliver the necessary resources (Pule, 2015) [36] , and concerning low levels of school conditions, Lassibille and Gómez (2020) [31] found that South Africa is among the bottom three educational systems.
Okeke and Mtyuda (2017) [35] noted that schools within the identified districts have no resources and that schoolteachers share resources with other schools. Typical lack of resources includes technological resources (Dehaloo, 2011 [28] , Dludla, 2019 [29] ; Hlongwane, 2013 [30] ); limited funding (Dludla, 2019) [29] , limited available textbooks and a lack of school libraries (Hlongwane, 2013) [30] .
Lack of school infrastructure also significantly contributes to lower levels of job satisfaction. Factors include safety at schools (Dehaloo, 2011 [28] ; Hlongwane, 2013 [30] ; Pule, 2015 [36] ); poor physical infrastructure (Dehaloo, 2011) [28] ; deteriorating facilities (Dludla, 2019 [29] , Hlongwane, 2013 [30] ; Maforah and Schulze, 2012 [32] ; Okeke & Mtyuda, 2017 [35] ); no access to flushing toilets (Hlongwane, 2013) [30] ; no access or limited access to running water (Hlongwane, 2013 [30] ; Maforah and Schulze, 2012 [32] ; Okeke & Mtyuda, 2017 [35] ); electricity shortages (Hlongwane, 2013 [30] ; Okeke & Mtyuda, 2017 [35] ); and poor roads that lead to schools (Hlongwane, 2013 [30] ; Okeke & Mtyuda, 2017 [35] ).
4. Implications and Recommendations
Botha and Hugo (2021) [26] found that negative factors that influence job satisfaction, in turn, lead to schoolteacher burnout, lower levels of commitment, and schoolteacher absenteeism, which consequently lead to an increased rate of schoolteacher turnover. Bull (2005) [27] also noted a strong relationship between levels of job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Thus, suggesting that without addressing the antecedents as identified schoolteachers are likely to exit the profession which further imposes difficulties on an already struggling sector. As Dehaloo (2011) [28] noted that schoolteachers experience high levels of stress and become demotivated which negatively influences their performance in class and levels of commitment (doing the minimum, leaving early, and coming late, absenteeism, and insubordinate towards authority), which ultimately leads to high levels of schoolteacher turnover (resignation, early retirement, or being medically boarded).
From Botha and Hugo (2021) [26] , it is proposed that effective mentoring programmes could act as a shield to combat the antecedents that impede overall job satisfaction. Dehaloo (2011) [28] suggested a multi-faceted policy to address levels of job satisfaction. Dludla (2019) [29] emphasized the implementation of human resources strategies to enhance schoolteacher job satisfaction, alongside various policy revisions (remuneration restructuring, continuous professional development, school learner disciplinary guidelines and parental involvement policy, and increased support from the DoE). De Klerk, et al. (2020) [47] have also proposed guidelines for promoting organizational resilience in South African schools. The current authors are also of the opinion that holistic and contextual job satisfaction interventions should be developed that address the antecedents of job satisfaction in order to elevate and aid in the correction of the current status of the basic education sector of South Africa. New interventions could include multifaceted activities and programmes that incorporate and address the sources of dissatisfaction as identified. Available interventions could also potentially be adapted to address the specific needs of the South African basic education sector (see Dreer, 2020 [48] ; Fourie, 2006 [23] ; Graham, 2000 [24] ).
5. Limitations
The current review is not without limitations. The review included literature only applicable to the South African basic education sector and consequently should be interpreted with caution and not be generalized to basic education sectors in the world. Furthermore, this review was written out of the needs identified from a previous review by the same authors, the search was completed during June and July 2022 and consequently, more recent literature was not included in the current review. Lastly, the proposal of a new intervention or adapted intervention could not be fully addressed during this review due to a lack of scientifically recorded intervention in South Africa and other parts of the world. This suggest the need for developing and testing interventions that address job satisfaction of schoolteachers in South Africa and globally.
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, it is noted that the current status of the South African basic education sector is under enormous pressure. Furthermore, at the core schoolteachers face various challenges that negatively impede their levels of job satisfaction. It is recommended that the identified antecedents of job satisfaction for schoolteachers be used to develop contextually appropriate interventions to improve the overall well-being of schoolteachers, which could ultimately improve the current status of the basic education sector of South Africa.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Megan Catriona Barnard (North-West University) for the critical reading of this article.