The Connection between Willingness to Communicate and Academic Performance ()
1. Introduction
In the realm of international education, effective communication in English holds significant importance for non-native English-speaking students pursuing studies in native-English-speaking countries such as Australia, New Zealand, and UK. In the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA), Willingness to Communicate (WTC) has emerged as a prominent area of investigation due to its significant influence on language learning outcomes. WTC pertains to individuals’ inclination and motivational drive to actively participate in communicative interactions using the target language. Its multifaceted nature makes it a crucial factor for educators, researchers, and practitioners aiming to enhance language learning experiences and foster effective communication skills among second language learners. Understanding the complexities surrounding WTC is vital for comprehending its implications for second language acquisition. By exploring the various dimensions of WTC, researchers can gain valuable insights into the factors influencing individuals’ WTC and the potential effects on their language learning progress. Additionally, recognizing the interplay between WTC and academic performance is crucial for designing effective language learning strategies and interventions. This study focuses specifically on the connection between WTC and academic performance in English among international students studying in Australia. International students constitute a diverse population with unique linguistic backgrounds and cultural experiences. Investigating the relationship between WTC and academic performance in this context holds great importance for both theoretical and practical implications. By delving into the factors that influence WTC and examining its association with academic performance, this research aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on language learning strategies and interventions. The findings from this study will provide valuable insights into how educators, researchers, and practitioners can effectively promote learners’ WTC in the target language, thereby optimizing their language learning outcomes.
WTC was initially conceptualized to explain individuals’ preferences for communication in their first language (L1) and was considered a stable attribute across different contexts (McCroskey & Baer, 1985) . However, in the context of second language (L2) communication, WTC is influenced by linguistic, social, and psychological factors that are not necessarily linked to the individual’s L1 (MacIntyre et al., 1998) . To understand the dynamics of L2 WTC, MacIntyre and colleagues (MacIntyre et al., 1998) introduced a heuristic pyramid model that delineates the enduring and transient factors influencing L2 WTC. According to the model, WTC acts as the immediate determinant of L2 communication, while other factors exert their influence at different levels within the pyramid (MacIntyre et al., 1998) . This model has influenced numerous studies investigating WTC. Numerous studies have demonstrated the multifaceted nature of WTC, highlighting its susceptibility to diverse influencing factors. Scholars have identified several factors, such as communicative capability (MacIntyre et al., 2002; Yashima, 2002) , communication apprehension (MacIntyre et al., 2002) , relationship between self-confidence and L2 proficiency (Ghonsooly et al., 2012) , L2 language learning motivation (Peng, 2015) , the notion of ideal L2 selves (Al-Murtadha, 2019; Peng, 2015) , international posture (Yashima, 2002) , and attitudes towards the international community (Ghonsooly et al., 2012) . These influential factors collectively contribute to the understanding of WTC and its dynamics within the field of SLA. Nevertheless, MacIntyre et al. (1998) highlighted that while trait-based WTC may create a predisposition for individuals to engage in communication when the circumstances are favorable, the actual occurrence of communication is contingent upon situational factors. In other words, although individuals with a higher level of trait WTC exhibit a greater inclination to communicate, the specific situational context plays a crucial role in whether or not communication actually takes place. This acknowledgment underscores the significance of considering both individual predispositions and contextual influences in the study of WTC within the realm of communication research.
Investigations grounded in situational analysis and contextual frameworks, frequently employing qualitative or mixed research methodologies, have demonstrated the dynamic nature of WTC. These studies have revealed that WTC can vary not only between different lessons but also within a single instructional activity. Such fluctuations are influenced by a multitude of factors, including but not limited to the topic being discussed, the characteristics of the teacher and peers involved, the perceived interest and significance of the task, the level of cooperation and familiarity with the interlocutors, the mastery of relevant vocabulary, the opportunity to express one’s ideas, cultural influences, levels of excitement and responsibility, the sense of security, the ability to recall vocabulary, and the experience of anxiety. The comprehensive exploration of these diverse situational factors contributes to our understanding of the nuanced dynamics of WTC and underscores the intricate interplay between contextual variables and individuals’ communicative behaviors (Cao, 2014; Kang, 2005; Zhang et al., 2019; Pattapong, 2015; Cao & Philp, 2006; Wen & Clément, 2003; Pawlak & Mystkowska-Wiertelak, 2015; MacIntyre & Legatto, 2011) .
Language competence plays a pivotal role in facilitating successful academic engagement, social integration, and future professional prospects. Within this linguistic landscape, the concept of WTC has emerged as a significant factor influencing language learning outcomes. Extensive research has consistently demonstrated that individuals who actively seek opportunities to engage in communication within a second language context exhibit enhanced language learning progress (Peng et al., 2021; MacIntyre et al., 1998) . As a result, the level of an individual’s WTC has been found to significantly impact their language proficiency, leading to improved vocabulary acquisition, fluency, accuracy, and overall communicative ability (MacIntyre et al., 2001) . The relationship between WTC and academic performance remains a topic of debate. Some studies have found a positive association between high language proficiency levels and higher levels of WTC in various contexts, such as Japanese university settings (Freiermuth & Jarrell, 2006) , the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in China (Liu & Jackson, 2008) and English as a Second Language (ESL) in New Zealand (Cao, 2014) . Conversely, Yashima (2002) found no significant relationship between proficiency and WTC or communication confidence in the Japanese EFL context, although her study lacked a speaking section in the assessment. In the Iranian EFL context, Khajavy et al. (2016) included a speaking section in their achievement test and found that L2 proficiency strongly predicted confidence of communication, which in turn influenced WTC. In a European context, Denies et al. (2015) observed that higher level of listening proficiency directly contributed to higher perceived competence, subsequently increasing WTC. In a more recent study conducted by Yashima et al. (2016) , an examination of the relationship between TOEFL scores and situational WTC was undertaken, involving three participants. The findings of this investigation revealed that language proficiency did not emerge as the primary factor influencing the levels of WTC, thus corroborating the earlier findings reported by Yashima (2002) . Despite similar TOEFL scores, the participants exhibited different WTC behaviors in the classroom, highlighting the intricate nature of the WTC construct.
While previous study has shed light on the positive correlation between WTC and language learning outcomes, it is essential to acknowledge that academic performance in English is a multifaceted phenomenon influenced by various contextual factors. International students, in particular, face a diverse range of challenges stemming from cultural differences, prior educational backgrounds, and academic majors pursued in a foreign educational setting (Bergey et al., 2020; Huang & Brown, 2009) . Consequently, a comprehensive examination of the relationship between WTC and academic performance in English necessitates an investigation that considers the potential impact of these additional factors. Thus, the primary aim of current study is to investigate the potential correlation between WTC and academic performance in English among international students studying in Australia. By considering the individual WTC levels and English language proficiency of participants, alongside their respective home countries and academic majors, this research seeks to provide a nuanced understanding of the multifaceted nature of this relationship. The results of this study have dual significance, making contributions to the current knowledge base and offering practical implications for educational institutions, language instructors, and policymakers in their efforts to enhance support systems and interventions for international students. To fulfill the objectives of the present study, the subsequent research inquiries were developed:
1) What is the association between WTC and academic performance in English?
2) Does WTC predict the overall Grade-Point Average (GPA) among ESL students in Australia?
3) How do differences in students’ home countries and academic majors being studied affect WTC?
In the realm of language teaching, fostering motivation for L2 communication is essential to enhance productive language learning outcomes. The interaction-hypothesis (Long, 1996) and the output-hypothesis (Swain, 1985) lend credence to Skehan’s (1989) proposition that learners must actively participate in communicative interactions to enhance the process of learning. However, the extent of L2 communication largely relies on students’ WTC (MacIntyre & Charos, 1996) . Even though global significance of L2 communication in foreign language education, many learners tend to remain silent and passive in ESL classrooms. Silence in this context is often perceived negatively as it hinders the development of communicative abilities. Considering the significance of WTC for successful English Language learning, the present study focuses on examining WTC as an independent variable and its impact on academic performance in English, including grade point average (GPA), which serves as the dependent variable. Additionally, when investigating WTC as the dependent or outcome variable, independent variables such as home country and academic major are taken into account. Consequently, the research question has led to the formulation of the subsequent research hypotheses:
H1: There occurs a positive association between WTC and academic performance in English, specifically in the domains of reading, writing, and speaking.
H2: WTC serves as a positive predictor of GPA among ESL students in Australia.
These hypotheses have been developed in alignment with the research question and will guide the investigation in this study.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
The study incorporated a sample of international students who were enrolled in higher education institutions in Australia including the University of Queensland, the University of Melbourne, and the University of Sydney. These participants were pursuing bachelor’s and master’s degrees in various fields of study. The study encompassed participants within the age bracket of 20 to 25 years old. A convenience sampling method was employed, both online and offline, within the universities. Before engaging in the study, participants were furnished with pertinent details regarding the policy of maintaining confidentiality. Additionally, comprehensive instructions were presented to ensure participants’ proficiency in navigating and successfully completing the survey. The survey was distributed to students through an online platform. Upon completion of the survey, participants were offered either a participation reward or a corresponding gift as a token of appreciation for their involvement. A total of 160 students expressed their willingness to participate in the study and provided informed consent. After excluding 30 questionnaires that were deemed invalid, the remaining 130 responses were included in the data analysis. Consequently, the valid response rate amounted to 81.1%.
2.2. Instruments
The Self-Efficacy Scale utilized in this study originated from the work of Hancı-Yanar and Bümen (2012) in Turkish. The scale was originally designed to evaluate the self-efficacy beliefs of ESL learners. The scale underwent a series of analyses, including exploratory factor analysis to identify dimensions and item loads, as well as confirmatory factor analysis to validate the model and confirm the identified dimensions. The authors successfully established a reliable and valid self-efficacy scale, yielding an impressive internal consistency reliability coefficient of 0.94 (Cronbach’s alpha). Comprising a total of 24 Likert-type items, the scale encompassed four dimensions: reading (8 items), writing (10 items), and speaking (6 items). Participants were instructed to express their level of agreement for each item on a Likert scale, spanning from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5). The reliability coefficients for each dimension of the scale were as follows: reading (0.92), writing (0.88), and speaking (0.92), indicating high internal consistency. In the present study, the overall scale demonstrated a reliability coefficient of .946, suggesting strong internal consistency. Moreover, the internal consistency of the reading, writing, and speaking dimensions was assessed, yielding reliability coefficients of 0.867, 0.827, and .836, respectively. These coefficients indicate good reliability within each dimension, highlighting the consistency of responses across the items related to specific language skills.
The second measure utilized in this study was the Willingness to Communicate Scale (WTCS) developed by McCroskey (1992) . The scale was developed to evaluate participants’ willingness to communicate across a range of contexts, encompassing group discussions, meetings, interpersonal conversations, and public speaking engagements. The scale comprised a set of 12 items that covered different communication scenarios and involved different receivers, such as strangers, acquaintances, and friends. The scale aimed to capture participants’ degree of willingness to engage in communication in the English language. Participants were requested to indicate their degree of willingness using a numerical rating scale ranging from 0 (representing “never”) to 10 (indicating “always”) for each of the 12 situations presented. By employing the WTC scale developed by McCroskey (1992) this study effectively measured participants’ inclination to engage in English communication in diverse communication settings and with different interlocutors. The high Cronbach’s alpha coefficient obtained in the present study indicates strong internal consistency and reliability of the scale.
2.3. Statistical Analysis
The data will be subjected to three forms of statistical analysis. Firstly, correlation analysis will be conducted to examine the association between WTC and academic performance in English. This analysis aims to determine the presence and magnitude of relationships between variables. Secondly, simple linear regression analysis will be employed to investigate whether WTC predicts GPA. This analysis allows researchers to understand the predictive relationship between variables, specifically whether one variable can forecast another Curtis et al., 2016) . Lastly, one-way ANOVA will be utilized to analyze the third and fourth hypotheses. One-way ANOVA is a statistical procedure employed to investigate the presence of significant differences between multiple groups when testing hypotheses involving more than two groups (Greenland et al., 2016) . It allows for the assessment of variations both between and within the groups under consideration. Given that both home country and academic major consist of multiple groups, one-way ANOVA is deemed appropriate for exploring these relationships (Curtis et al., 2016) . Independent samples t-tests are not used in this context due to the presence of multiple groups, making one-way ANOVA the preferred statistical test for this study.
3. Results
3.1. Initial Data Screening Procedures and Assumptions
Prior to conducting the statistical analysis, comprehensive data screening procedures were undertaken to ensure the accuracy of the data and meet the necessary assumptions. The initial step involved performing a descriptive analysis test to evaluate the appropriateness of the sample size. This examination aimed to determine whether the sample size was adequate for the intended analyses. Additionally, the second procedure involved inspecting the string variables and transforming them into numeric variables. This conversion was implemented to facilitate the subsequent data analysis concerning the participants’ country of origin and academic major. Moreover, adherence to the assumptions underlying the selected statistical tests was crucial. For instance, the researcher assessed whether the variables possessed a numeric nature, as this was a prerequisite for conducting statistical tests such as correlations and regression analyses. Additionally, the assumption of normal distribution was evaluated before conducting the one-way ANOVA test. It was imperative to ensure that the data met this assumption in order to proceed with the statistical analysis. Hence, a preliminary assessment was conducted to verify the normal distribution of the data before performing the designated statistical test.
3.2. Descriptive Statistics
Table 1 presents an overview of the study participants, indicating a total sample size of 130 individuals. The variables examined in the study exhibited mean values ranging from 2.51 to 72.49. Notably, the standard deviations for all variables were large, ranging from 1.101 to 13.640. These results suggest a considerable variation between participants ranked lower and higher on the rating scales.
Inferential statistical tests were conducted to examine the hypotheses of the study. The first hypothesis (H1) aimed to explore the positive association between WTC and academic performance in English, specifically reading, writing, and speaking skills. Table 2 presents the results of the Pearson correlation analysis assessing this association.
The results of the multiple linear correlation analysis unveiled statistically significant and positive associations between WTC and all three skills under investigation: reading (R = 0.739, P < 0.001), writing (R = 0.503, P < 0.001), and speaking (R = 0.574, P < 0.001). These correlations exhibited a substantial magnitude, suggesting that a rise in WTC corresponded to a subsequent improvement in academic performance in the English language.
Hypothesis 2 (H2) aimed to investigate whether WTC acted as a positive predictor of GPA among ESL students in Australia. The results of the simple linear regression analysis, assessing this association, are presented in Table 3. The results demonstrated that WTC accounted for 23.1% of the variance in GPA scores among ESL students in Australia. Additionally, the analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a major and positive link between WTC and GPA scores, with F (1,128) = 38.391, N = 130, P < 0.001. The rejection of the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis, with a significance level of P < 0.05, provides support for the conclusion that WTC serves as a positive and significant predictor of GPA scores among ESL students in Australia. Moreover, the analysis of predictor variables indicated a positive, moderate, and significant relationship between WTC and GPA scores (Beta = 0.480, P < 0.001). This suggests that a unit increase in WTC is associated with a 23% increase in GPA scores among ESL students in Australia.
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
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Table 3. Regression analysis WTC and GPA.
For visual representation, Figure 1 illustrates the positive relationship between WTC and academic performance in English.
To explore the variations among students originating from different countries, a one-way ANOVA was performed. The results indicated a significant differentiation in mean WTC scores, F (3,126) = 7.038, P < 0.001, among students from different nations. This finding Table 4 suggests that students from numerous countries are likely to exhibit varying scores on the WTC scale.
This is also seen in the Figure 2 below. It displays the variation in mean WTC scores among students from different countries.
Furthermore, researchers have also examined the disparities among students based on their academic majors. Table 5 presents the findings of this analysis. Demonstrated a statistically significant and positive differentiation in the mean scores of WTC across students belonging to various academic majors, as indicated by the F (3,126) = 3.127, P < 0.028. These findings suggest that students pursuing different academic majors are likely to display diverse performances on the WTC scale.
This is also seen in the Figure 3 below. It depicts the differences in mean WTC scores between students of different academic majors.
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Figure 2. One way ANOVA WTC and country.
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Table 5. One way ANOVA WTC and academic major.
The findings provided compelling evidence of the significant role played by WTC in shaping students’ academic achievement in English. The results highlighted a positive and statistically significant correlation between WTC and proficiency in reading, writing, and speaking skills, underscoring the importance of active engagement in communication for effective second language learning. Furthermore, the study revealed that WTC served as a reliable predictor of GPA scores among ESL students in Australia. Additionally, notable variations in WTC scores were identified among students from diverse countries and academic majors.
4. Discussion
The primary aim of this study was to investigate the association between WTC and academic performance in English among international students enrolled in educational institutions in Australia. The study examined the students’ WTC levels in different contexts and investigated how the presence of specific interlocutors influenced their WTC. The study’s findings unveiled a moderate level of WTC among the students in the English language. It was observed that the degree of WTC varied depending on the specific contexts. Notably, the students reported higher levels of WTC when interacting with their friends compared to strangers. In contrast, they expressed reluctance to engage in seminars, conversations, or small-group discussions when their interlocutors were unfamiliar individuals. These findings align with the research by MacIntyre (2007) , who emphasizes the situational nature of WTC, suggesting that the WTC can vary based on different factors.
The outcomes of this study are consistent with the investigations conducted by Kang (2005) , which underscore the contextual aspect of WTC. Kang posits that factors such as the characteristics of interlocutors, the topic being discussed, and the nature of the conversational context can exert an influence on individuals’ levels of WTC (Kang, 2005) . Furthermore, the current study’s findings support the observations made by Cao and Philp (2006) , who emphasized that students exhibit a greater eagerness to initiate communication predominantly with friends rather than classmates with whom they are less acquainted. Similarly, Riasati and Rahimi (2018) found that learners display a higher willingness to communicate in English when conversing with familiar individuals. Moreover, the present study revealed that students expressed greater eagerness to communicate in English within small groups of friends. This finding aligns with Cao and Philp’s (2006) suggestion that learners prefer conversational groups with a smaller number of interlocutors. Taken together, these findings suggest that WTC in second language (L2) contexts tends to fluctuate depending on various situational variables.
5. Implications
The outcomes of this study carry important implications for educational institutions, language instructors, and policymakers seeking to enhance the learning experiences and outcomes of international students. Firstly, promoting and nurturing WTC among ESL students in Australia is of paramount importance. Creating an inclusive environment that values and encourages active communication in English can yield substantial benefits in terms of academic performance and GPA scores. Language instructors should adopt pedagogical approaches that facilitate the development of WTC skills, thus fostering students’ language learning progress. Secondly, it is crucial to gain a comprehensive understanding of ESL students’ specific learning needs, particularly with regard to their willingness to communicate. By identifying the factors that influence WTC, educators can tailor their teaching strategies and support mechanisms to cater to the individual requirements of students. This personalized approach holds the potential to enhance ESL students’ proficiency in English and overall academic achievements.
6. Limitations
Several limitations warrant consideration in interpreting the findings of this study, opening avenues for upcoming research. Firstly, the sample primarily consisted of international students studying in Australia, thereby limiting the generalizability of the results to other educational contexts. Replicating the study across diverse cultural and linguistic settings would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between WTC and academic performance. Secondly, the reliance on self-report measures to assess both WTC and academic performance introduces potential biases and limitations, such as social desirability bias and response inaccuracies. Future studies could incorporate objective measures, including language proficiency tests and performance-based assessments, to complement self-report data, thereby yielding a more robust evaluation of WTC and its impact on academic performance. Lastly, this study focused primarily on examining the relationship between WTC and academic performance in English. Exploring additional factors that may influence this relationship, such as cultural variations, prior educational backgrounds, or students’ motivational factors, would provide a more nuanced understanding of the multifaceted nature of WTC and its implications for language learning outcomes. Addressing these limitations in future research endeavors will strengthen the validity and generalizability of the findings, contributing to a deeper understanding of the pivotal role played by WTC in the academic success of international students.
An additional noteworthy discovery from this study pertained to the learners’ overall self-efficacy perceptions in English, which were found to be moderate in magnitude. It was observed that learners’ perceived self-efficacy in English could vary across different contexts. However, the study uncovered a noteworthy association between students’ academic achievement and their self-efficacy, demonstrating that higher levels of achievement were indicative of increased self-efficacy. Furthermore, self-efficacy was found to strongly and positively predict willingness to communicate (WTC). These findings align with earlier investigations conducted by Fallah (2014) and Peng & Woodrow (2010) , which have provided empirical evidence supporting the influential role of communication self-confidence in L2 as a conjecturer of individuals’ WTC. Additionally, Onoda (2012) reported self-efficacy as a robust predictor of WTC in a study closely related to the present research. Similarly, Zhong (2013) identified self-efficacy as one of the important factors influencing learners’ WTC. Matsuoka (2006) also emphasized the strong and positive predictive relationship between self-confidence and WTC in L2 context. Another study by Pattapong (2010) concluded that the WTC of Thai foreign language learners was influenced by their level of self-efficacy. Thus, the finding regarding self-efficacy as a predictor of WTC is supported by the collective evidence provided by these studies.
7. Conclusion and Suggestions
This study aimed to examine the association between WTC and academic achievement among students enrolled in higher education institutions in Australia. The findings demonstrated a positive connection between WTC and academic accomplishment in English, indicating that an increase in the level of WTC corresponds to enhanced academic performance. Specifically, students who displayed a greater willingness to communicate in English exhibited higher levels of academic success. The statistical analyses performed consistently supported the existence of this relationship. Based on these results, it can be inferred that academic success is influenced by various factors, with WTC playing a significant role in determining performance. Consequently, the study underscores the importance of promoting students’ engagement, willingness to communicate, and self-regulation through the implementation of strategies that support learner autonomy. Establishing a conducive learning environment wherein teachers effectively communicate their expectations, offer opportunities for active participation in tasks, and provide a rationale for the learning process can enhance students’ ability to take charge of their learning, express themselves proficiently, and confidently articulate their ideas. By organizing their thoughts and actively engaging in communication, students can further enhance their language skills and achieve improved academic outcomes.