Ethnopharmacological Assessment of Medicinal Plants Used in the Management of Livestock Ailments by Resource-Limited Farmers in the Eastern Cape Province

Siza Mthi^1,2*, Jean Rust¹, Sive Tokozwayo¹, Zimasa Busisiwe Dubeni³

¹Döhne Agricultural Development Institute, Stutterheim, South Africa.
²Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform, Queenstown, South Africa.
³Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa.

DOI: 10.4236/ojvm.2023.136009                

Abstract

Medicinal plants play a major role in meeting people’s medical and health needs, especially in developing countries. However, due to a lack of access to modern veterinary facilities, poor visibility of animal health personnel, and high prices of orthodox medicines, most farmers rely on traditional healers and the administration of medicinal plants to treat livestock ailments. The present study was conducted to document Ethnopharmacological knowledge of medicinal plants used to manage livestock ailments in three rural communities of the Eastern Cape. This study was carried out in three rural communities between July 2009 and February 2010. Data were collected by administering pre-tested semi-structured questionnaires and participative field observations. For the interviews, a sample of 48 knowledgeable respondents was purposively selected. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, determination of information consensus factor, and fidelity level. A total of 12 medicinal plants belonging to 9 families were used by local people to cure different ailments. A high number of medicinal plants were claimed by males compared to females. Roots and barks were the major plant parts used, and the least were leaves (27.3%). Six plants were used to treat diarrhea and fertility, five plants to treat wounds, and two plants to treat scabs. This study has shown that Eastern Cape flora is rich with various plants which could be used to replace orthodox drugs. Further studies are needed to determine the minimum inhibitory concentrations, biological activities, and toxicities and characterize the plant’s chemical compounds.

Keywords

Ethnopharmacology, Medicinal Plants, Livestock Ailments, Farmers, Eastern Cape

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants have been used worldwide and are regarded as essential natural resources because of their efficacy, availability, and cultural beliefs [1] [2] . They have been used as shelter, clothing, food, flavors, and fragrances, not the least medicines [3] [4] [5] [6] . The use of medicinal plants with therapeutic properties is as ancient as human civilization and, for a long time, mineral, plant, and animal products were the primary sources of drugs [7] . Plant-based ethnoveterinary medicine is widely practiced by various ethnic groups in many undeveloped nations, such as South Africa, because livestock husbandry is an essential source of income [8] [9] .

According to [10] , the Eastern Cape Province (ECP) owns 29 percent of the country’s livestock herds/flocks, with smallholder farmers owning the majority. The strong linkage between agriculture and the economy remains crucial for economic growth and poverty alleviation in South Africa. Livestock production plays an essential role in guaranteeing food security income for households and contributing to the economy [10] .

Nutrition and diseases are the key factors that hinder sustainable production and the maintenance of animal health [11] [12] [13] [14] . Infectious and non-infectious diseases generate considerable economic losses in South Africa’s livestock farming, resulting in extensive mortality and morbidity and negative repercussions for animal welfare, health, production, and high treatment costs [15] [16] . In addition to their usefulness in the animal health care system, challenges such as the development of drug resistance in livestock and consumer-unfriendly effects such as excessive antibiotic residues in milk and other animal by-products have increased the importance of ethnoveterinary medicines [17] .

Antibiotics are often used to manage livestock ailments to decrease mortality from clinical diseases [18] [19] . The use of these antibiotics in animal husbandry has been restricted globally due to the transmission of traces of antibiotics in meat [20] . There is, therefore, a necessity to look for new alternatives that can replace the function of antibiotics used in the livestock production process.

According to [21] , traditional livestock management using medicinal plants is of great socioeconomic importance for farmers and pastoral populations. Naturally available medicinal plants have been tested to combat some pathogens affecting humans and animals, as they contain a wide range of active substances that can induce biological functions [22] [23] . Medicinal plants are cheaper than Western drugs [24] [25] . Their extracts have been utilized as alternatives to the antibiotics used in ruminant nutrition [26] .

This study aimed to document Ethnopharmacological knowledge on ethnoveterinary practices in three previously undiscovered settlements in the Eastern Cape Province. Various ethnobotanical studies have been conducted in the surrounding areas and some of the investigated locations due to livestock producers’ increased reliance on therapeutic herbs [27] . Despite the Eastern Cape’s strong agricultural past, these potential locations have received little attention from an ethnoveterinary standpoint. The current research is part of a larger effort to investigate in detail the ethnoveterinary practices used in seven Eastern Cape regions. People in these regions have sound Ethnopharmacological knowledge and are actively using ethnoveterinary practices to improve the health of their livestock and supplement their income. The current study’s findings would contribute significantly to the preservation of valuable traditional ethnoveterinary knowledge. The results will further provide baseline data for future in vitro and in vivo studies that could identify novel active compounds and develop low-cost, low-side-effect veterinary drugs.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Ethical Consideration

Before the commencement of data collection, ethical clearance was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee at Dohne Agricultural Development Institute (Registration number: 01/2012). To protect the rights and welfare of the interviewees, guidelines based on the protection of indigenous knowledge bill (2013) were followed. Consent was sought from the farmers prior to the commencement of the trial using a language of their choice. The farmers were assured of the confidentiality of the information provided during the study period.

2.2. Study Areas

The current investigation was carried out in three villages in the Eastern Cape’s Amathole and O.R. Tambo districts (Figure 1 and Table 1). The study’s villages were chosen based on preliminary surveys conducted by the first author, which revealed that the communities’ residents have a wealth of undocumented traditional knowledge regarding the use of traditional medicines. The villages were chosen based on the apparent willingness of healers in the communities to collaborate with the study’s goals. The medical plant specimens were collected with informants in places where they typically collected plant materials for use, pressed, dried, and mounted on standard herbarium sheets, and afterward identified using Flora of South Africa as illustrated in the published book ‘Trees of South Africa [28] . The specimens that were accurately identified were deposited in the ECP’s herbarium, DADI, Stutterheim. In Table 1, the voucher numbers are shown.

2.3. Data Collection and Analysis

Peer recommendations from extension personnel and community leaders were

Figure 1. Map study areas showing the communities where the study was conducted.

Table 1. Shows description of study site (villages) in the district municipalities.

used to contact a total of 100 informants from the research locations. Each respondent who was approached was given a full explanation of the study’s aim, including research objectives, data-gathering techniques, and the desire to publish data. Following that, only participants who accepted to participate in the study and signed an individual written prior informed permission were interviewed in detail for data collecting reasons. Interviews with 48 informants utilizing a semi-structured questionnaire with predetermined open-ended and direct questions were used. Each participant was interviewed using their vernacular language (IsiXhosa) and later translated to English at Dohne Agricultural Development Institute (DADI). The plants used, diseases and ailments treated, processes of preparation and administration of herbal remedies, and elements of time and place that they deem crucial when harvesting medicinal plants were all discussed during the interviews. Individual healers were questioned, and most of the interviews took place in their homes or at locations where they collected plants for treatments.

Microsoft Excel was used for data management and entry. All the collected data were coded and entered into the computer with excel. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 20 computer program was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, distributions, and percentages were used to summarize the data.

3. Results

The current study found that in the three villages, respondents use a variety of flora to treat a variety of ailments, and the locals have a wealth of traditional medicinal plant knowledge. The age of the informants ranged from 21 to 82 years old. An interesting finding was that, while both males and female participants used medicinal plants, males were the most common, accounting for more than 60% of the informants (Table 2). A total of 12 plant species from nine different families were identified as being used, Fabaceae was the most abundant family (three species) followed by Rhamnaceae (two species). Each of the other families had only one species (Table 3). The majority of the informants mostly used trees (75%) for herbal preparation followed by shrubs (25%) (Table 3). Leaves were the most frequently used plant part accounting for 58.3%, followed by barks (25.0%) and roots (16.7%) were used for herbal preparation. The medicinal plants for the treatment of different ailments were prepared and administered using various methods. Infusions and decoctions were the most common procedures of medicinal preparation/extraction. For distinct plant preparations, two different administrative routes were used in this study namely: oral (89%) and cutaneous (56%). A total of four ailments were discovered to be treated with the identified medicinal plants, with poor fertility being the most common, followed by diarrhea, wounds, and scabs, according to the informant’s knowledge (Table 3). Of the recorded medicinal plants, 91.7% are from the wild and 8.3% from the homestead. Information consensus results have shown a high degree of consensus for fertility (0.88), diarrhea (0.84), scab (0.80), and wounds (0.78) (Table 4). The present study revealed seven medicinal plants having high Fidelity Level (FL) values (Table 5). Vachellia karroo ranked first scoring the highest FL value (90.0%) followed by Grewia occidentalis ranked second (83.9%), Olea europaea subsp. Africana ranked third (76.2%), Rhamnus prinoides ranked fourth (72.7%), Lippia javanica ranked fifth (71.4%), Elephantorrhiza elephantine ranked sixth (71.0%), and Asparagus africanus that ranked the seventh (60.0%).

Table 2. Information consensus factor rates of the medicinal plants used.

Table 3. List of plants used in treating animal diseases in the study areas.

Table 4. Information consensus factor rates of the medicinal plants used.

Table 5. Most used medicinal plants and their major uses with their fidelity level (0 = least, 100 = the highest efficiency).

4. Discussion

Ethnoveterinary applications of the local plant species play a vital role in the local microeconomics and livelihood of communal farmers in the Sub-Saharan region of the African continent. It is believed that Ethnomedicine is cheaper than allopathic remedies as result, they are most preferred by the semi-nomadic population [24] [25] . The current study revealed that in some parts of the Eastern Cape indigenous plant species are still used as a cheaper remedy for animal health care by the local communities (Table 3). However, exploitation of these natural resources or medicinal plants may occur due to uncontrolled access [29] .

Taxonomic analysis indicated that Fabaceae and Rhamnaceae were the dominant families as shown in Table 1. Fabaceae is known as the largest plant family after Orchidacea and Asteracea which are rich in essential oils and other secondary metabolites [30] [31] . According to previous studies in South Africa [8] [32] , and other countries the Fabaceae plant family was the most extensively used by traditional healers for cattle sickness therapy. Moreover, the abundance of Fabaceae and Rhamnaceae families could be caused by wider distribution in selected study areas and their diverse traditional uses for the pastorals. The high usage of Fabaceae and Rhamnaceae could be triggered by high concentrations of bioactive compounds [33] [34] .

Some of the plant species documented in this study were also found to be used in other regions in the Sub-Saharan. [35] used Aloe ferox to control internal and external parasites in goats, [36] used Asparagus africanus for childbirth, [37] used Schotia latifolia for skin problems, [38] used Prunus persica and Lippia javanica to treat wounds, and [37] . Rhamnus prinoides was used to control anaplasmosis, ticks, and foot rot [39] , Rhoicissus tomentosa was used to manage helminths [40] , and Olea europaea subsp. Africana was used to manage constipation [41] , and Ziziphus mucronata was used to treat wounds in cattle [42] . Elephantorrhiza elephantine was utilized to control diarrhea in studies conducted by [37] and [43] . [44] used Acacia karroo to treat diarrhea in livestock diseases. Grewia occidentalis was used to manage gall sickness [32] .

The fact that the same plant species are used for the same condition in different places implies that they have a wide distribution and are useful in treating certain ailments. Trees were the most regularly used growth forms for the treatment of livestock ailments across all growth forms and habitats and they were widely grown (Table 3). More trees were recorded during the survey due to perennially, defense mechanisms against herbivores, deeper root system (taproot), ability to produce more seeds, and capability to withstand cold and dry conditions, resulting in their abundance and year-round availability. These results are contrary to most medicinal plant inventories, which show that herbs are the most common plant growth forms [45] [46] . The high frequency of occurrence of therapeutic plant species is explained by the fact that wild plants are rich in bioactive compounds [47] . Harvesting therapeutic plant species from farmlands and home gardens was spurred by the necessity to have medicinal plant species close to homesteads to prevent having to travel long distances in search of them in the wild.

Leaves were the most widely used plant part in livestock treatment formulation (Table 3), generally created by infusion and decoction, which involves pouring water (hot, cold, or warm) onto the plant material and allowing the mixture solution to settle. Decoction, on the other hand, entails boiling plant components in a precise amount of water and allowing the concoction to cool before use. Similar findings were reported by [48] , however, this author used different techniques for extraction namely crushing, pounding, and squeezing [1] .

The variation in terms of extraction techniques may be influenced by culture and knowledge among different socio-cultural groups. Additionally, most medicinal plants used to treat livestock disease were orally taken, followed by topical application. [49] discovered a similar mode of delivery of medicinal plant treatments. Oral and cutaneous administrations were the predominant methods of administration for cattle illnesses therapies, according to [48] and [50] .

In this study, leaves were used as plant parts for medicinal preparation for livestock, and similar outcomes were reported by numerous Researchers [49] [51] [52] . Farmers perceived that the use of leaves was most conservative and sustainable compared to the use of roots or stems. The use of stems and roots may result in a complete kill of the medicinal plant due to the dysfunction of the xylem and phloem in the plant’s vascular system. However, the harvesting of leaves may negatively impact the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy (i.e. photosynthesis).

The Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) of four ailments is shown in Table 4. The highest level of ICF was obtained for fertility (ICF = 0.88) (Table 4). In agreement with our findings study conducted in Tanzania by [53] obtained 0.88 (ICF) for Jaundice. This shows the persistent use of traditional medicinal plants by local people in one part of South Africa. This point to the fact that although the local people have access to government animal health care support, still medicinal plants have not lost their value among the people living. Also, high ICF values can be used to pinpoint interesting species in search of bioactive compounds [54] .

Fidelity Level (FL) was used to classify the recorded plant species based on their claimed relative effectiveness. As illustrated in Table 5, six plant species have FL range from 60% - 90%, which includes Vachellia karroo, Grewia occidentalis, and Olea europaea subsp. Africana, Rhamnus prinoides, Lippia javanica, Elephantorrhiza elephantine, and Asparagus africanus. Low FL indicated less-preferred species for treating specific ailments. Plant species with especially high-fidelity level values are regarded as viable candidates for additional pharmacological investigations, according to [55] , this plant species warrants urgent attention. As a result, high FLs for specific species suggested that the plants may contain beneficial phytochemical substances.

5. Conclusion and Recommendations

The study area includes a huge reservoir of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants, according to the findings, and informants in the area have considerable traditional knowledge of how to employ these plants to heal their animals. In summary, we discovered flora species used by informants in the research areas to treat four cattle illnesses. Vachellia karroo, Grewia occidentalis, Olea europaea subsp. Africana, Rhamnus prinoides, Lippia javanica, Elephantorrhiza elephantine, and Asparagus africanus were among the most used species in the study area, with pharmacological importance in preventing or controlling various ailments on livestock. The phytochemical and pharmacological features of plants with high F_ic and FL values should be explored further. It is necessary to implement conservation strategies for multifunctional and other medical plant species. Before the demise of ethnoveterinary practices, young people should be mobilized to learn about them. The phytochemical and pharmacological investigations to isolate the active compound and test the in vitro or in vivo efficiency of the above-mentioned plants against the targeted veterinary diseases are important. In addition to this, critical toxicological investigations are required for the safe and secure use of documented ethnomedicine.

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform. We would also like to express our gratitude to the local informants in the research regions for their time and willingness to share their valuable indigenous knowledge with us.

Authors’ Contribution

SM identified the research area and title, collected field data, and drafted the manuscript. JR participated in refining the title and the formation of the research problem. ZBD and ST provided useful scientific and technical inputs on the drafting of the manuscript and data analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

[1]	Kayani, S., Ahmad, M., Zafar, M., Sultana, S., Khan, M.P.Z., Ashraf, M.A., Hussin, J. and Yaseen, G. (2014) Ethnobotanical Uses of Medicinal Plants for Respiratory Disorders among the Inhabitants of Gallies—Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 156, 47-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.08.005
[2]	Amjad, M.S., Zahoor, U., Bussmann, R.W., Altaf, M., Mubashar, S., Gardazi, S.M.H. and Abbasi, A.M. (2020) Ethnobotanical Survey of the Medicinal Flora of Harighal, Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 16, Article No. 65. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-00417-w
[3]	Ghorbani, A. (2005) Studies on Pharmaceutical Ethnobotany in the Region of Turkmen Sahra, North of Iran (Part 1): General Results. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 102, 58-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.05.035
[4]	Kujawska, M., Jiménez-Escobar, N.D., Nolan, J. and Arias-Mutis, D. (2017) Cognition, Culture and Utility: Plant Classification by Paraguayan Immigrant Farmers in Misiones, Argentina. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 13, Article No. 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0169-4
[5]	Shahrajabian, M.H., Sun, W. and Cheng, Q. (2019) A Review of Astragalus Species as Foodstuffs, Dietary Supplements, Traditional Chinese Medicine and a Part of Modern Pharmaceutical Science. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, 17, 13371-13382. https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1706_1337113382
[6]	Shahrajabian, M.H., Sun, W. and Cheng, Q. (2019) Pharmacological Uses and Health Benefits of Ginger (Zingiberofficinale) in Traditional Asian and Ancient Chinese Medicine, and Modern Practice. Notulae Scientia Biologicae, 11, 309-319. https://doi.org/10.15835/nsb11310419
[7]	Rates, S.M.K. (2017) Plants as Source of Drugs. Toxicon, 39, 603-613. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0041-0101(00)00154-9
[8]	Luseba, D. and Tshisikhawe, M.P. (2013) Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Livestock Diseases in Vhembe Region, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research, 7, 593-601.
[9]	Mthi, S., Rust, J.M., Morgenthal, T.L. and Moyo, B. (2018) An Ethnoveterinary Survey of Medicinal Plants Used to Treat Bacterial Diseases of Livestock in Three Geographic Areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 12, 240-247. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR2017.6444
[10]	Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) (2018) Drought Status in the Agriculture Sector. Portfolio Committee on Water and Sanitation, Pretoria.
[11]	Mussarat, S., Amber, R., Tariq, A., Adnan, M., Abdelsalam, N.M., Ullah, R. and Bibi, R. (2014) Ethnopharmacological Assessment of Medicinal Plants Used against Livestock Infections by People Living around Indus River. Biomed Research International, 2014, Article ID: 616858. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/616858
[12]	Robinson, T.P., Wertheim, H.F.L., Kakkar, M., Kariuki, S., Dengpan, Bu. and Price, L.B. (2016) Animal Production and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Clinic. The Lancet, 387, E1-E3. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00730-8
[13]	Sun, W., Shahrajabian, M.H. and Cheng, Q. (2019) Anise (Pimpinella anisum L.), a Dominant Spice and Traditional Medicinal Herb for Both Food and Medicinal Purposes. Cogent Biology, 5, Article ID: 1673688. https://doi.org/10.1080/23312025.2019.1673688
[14]	Sun, W., Shahrajabian, M.H. and Cheng, Q. (2019b) The Insight and Survey on Medicinal Properties and Nutritive Components of Shallot. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 13, 452-457. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR2019.6836
[15]	Gradé, T.J., Arble, B.L., Weladji, R.B. and van Damme, P. (2008) Anthelmintic Efficacy and Dose Determination of Albizia anthelmintica against Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Naturally Infected Ugandan Sheep. Veterinary Parasitology, 157, 267-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.07.021
[16]	Nabukenya, I., Rubaire-Akiiki, C., Olila, D., Ikwap, K. and Hoglund, J. (2014) Ethnopharmacological Practices by Livestock Farmers in Uganda: Survey Experiences from Mpingi and Gulu Districts. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 10, Article No. 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-9
[17]	Mathias, E. (2004) Ethnoveterinary Medicine: Harnessing Its Potential. Veterinary Bulletin, 74, 27-37.
[18]	Van Boeckel, T.P., Brower, C., Gilbert, M., Grenfell, B.T., Levin, S.A., Robinson, T.P., Teillant, A. and Laxminarayan, R. (2015) Global Trends in Antimicrobial Use in Food Animals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112, 5649-5654. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1503141112
[19]	Traversa, D. and von Samson-Himmelstjerna, G. (2016) Anthelmintic Resistance in Sheep Gastro-Intestinal Strongyles in Europe. Small Ruminant Research, 135, 75-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2015.12.014
[20]	Madrid-Garcés, A.A., López-Herrera, A. and Parra-Suescún, J.E. (2018) Effect of the Inclusion of Essential Oil of Oregano (Lippia origanoides) on Lipid Profile in Broiler Meat. Vitae, 25, 75-82. https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.vitae.v25n2a03
[21]	Traore, L., Yaro, V.S.O., Soudre, A., Ouedraogo-Kone, S., Ouedraogo, D., Yougbare, B., Zoma, B.L., Hien, M., Guissou, M.L., Traore, A., Meszaros, G., Wurzinger, M., Burger, P., Okeyo, A.M., Thiombiano, A. and Solkner, J. (2020) Indigenous Knowledge of Veterinary Medicinal Plant Use in Cattle Treatment in Southwestern Burkina Faso (West Africa). South African Journal of Botany, 128, 189-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.09.015
[22]	Varel, V.H. (2002) Livestock Manure Odor Abatement with Plant-Derived Oils and Nitrogen Conservation with Urease Inhibitors: A Review. Journal of Animal Science, 80, E1-E7. https://doi.org/10.2527/animalsci2002.80E-Suppl_2E1x
[23]	Iason, G., Dicke, M. and Hartley, S. (2012) The Integrative Roles of Plant Secondary Metabolites in Natural Systems: A Synthesis. In: Glenn, R., Iason, M.D. and Hartley, S.E., Eds., The Ecology of Plant Secondary Metabolites: From Genes to Global Processes, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511675751.002
[24]	Koné, W.M. and Atindehou, K.K. (2008) Ethnobotanical Inventory of Medicinal Plants Used in Traditional Veterinary Medicine in Northern Cote d’Ivoire (West Africa). South African Journal of Botany, 74, 76-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2007.08.015
[25]	Parthiban, R., Vijayakumar, S., Srinivasan, P. and Yabesh, J. (2015) Quantitative Traditional Knowledge of Medicinal Plants Used to Treat Livestock Diseases from Kudavasal Taluk of Thiruvarur District, Tamil Nadu, India. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia, 26, 109-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjp.2015.07.016
[26]	Caroprese, M., Ciliberti, M.G., Marino, R., Napolitano, F., Braghieri, A., Sevi, A. and Albenzio, M. (2020) Effect of Information on Geographical Origin, Duration of Transport and Welfare Condition on Consumer’s Acceptance of Lamb Meat. Scientific Reports, 10, Article No. 9754. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-66267-4
[27]	Tugume, P., Kakudidi, E.K., Buyinza, M., Namaalwa, J., Kamatenesi, M., Mucunguzi, P. and Kalema, J. (2016) Ethnobotanical Survey of Medicinal Plant Species Used by Communities around Mabira Central Forest Reserve, Uganda. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 12, Article No. 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-015-0077-4
[28]	Van Wyk, B., Van Wyk, P. and Van Wyk, B. (2014) Trees of Southern Africa. 2nd Edition, Third Impression, Pretoria.
[29]	Tokozwayo, S., Mopipi, K., Timpong-Jones, E.C., Thubela, T., Gulwa, U. and Nyangiwe, N. (2018) Pastoralist’s Perceptions on the Impact of Vachellia karroo Encroachment in Communal Rangelands of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, 10, 222-233. https://doi.org/10.5897/JAERD2018.1001
[30]	Miller, N.J. and Ruiz-Larrea, M.B. (2002) Flavonoids and Other Plant Phenols in the Diet: Their Significance as Antioxidants. Journal of Nutritional & Environmental Medicine, 12, 39-51. https://doi.org/10.1080/13590840220123352
[31]	Semenya, S.S. and Maroyi, A. (2012) Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment of Tuberculosis by Bapedi Traditional Healers in Three Districts of the Limpopo Province, South Africa. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, 10, 316-323. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v10i2.17
[32]	Selogatwe, K.M., Asong, J.A., Struwig, M., Ndou, R.V. and Aremu, A.O. (2021) A Review of Ethnoveterinary Knowledge, Biological Activities and Secondary Metabolites of Medicinal Woody Plants Used for Managing Animal Health in South Africa. Veterinary Sciences, 8, Article 228. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci8100228
[33]	Mecado, M.J.F., Ribeiro, D.A., Santos, M.O., de Macedo, D.G., Macedo, J.G.F., de Almedia, B.V., Saraiva, M.E., de Lacerda, M.N.S. and de Almida-Souza, B.V. (2018) Fabaceae Medicinal Flora with Therapeutic Potential in Savanna Areas in the Chapada do Araripe, Northeastern Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia, 28, 738-750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjp.2018.06.010
[34]	Yahia, Y., Benabderrahim, M.A., Tlili, N., Bagues, M. and Nagaz, K. (2020) Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant, and Antimicrobial Activities of Extracts from Different Plant Parts of two Ziziphus Mill. Species. PLOS ONE, 15, e0232599. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232599
[35]	Sanhokwe, M., Mupangwa, J., Masika, P.J., Maphosa, V. and Muchenje, V. (2016) Medicinal Plants Used to Control Internal and External Parasites in Goats. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research, 83, a1016. https://doi.org/10.4102/ojvr.v83i1.1016
[36]	Maroyi, A. (2011) An Ethnobotanical Survey of Medicinal Plants Used by the People in Nhema Communal Area, Zimbabwe. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 136, 347-354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.05.003
[37]	Kambizi, L. (2014) Indigenous Plants for Ethnoveterinary Uses in the Pondoland, South Africa. Proceedings of the XXIX International Horticultural Congress on Horticulture: Sustaining Lives, Livelihoods and Landscapes (IHC2014): V World (1125) V World Congress on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and International Symposium on Plants, as Factories of Natural Substances, Edible, and Essential Oils, Brisbane, August 2014, 309-314. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2016.1125.40
[38]	Matlebyane, M.M., Ng’ambi, J.W.W. and Aregheor, E.M. (2010) Indigenous Knowledge (IK) Ranking of Available Browse and Grass Species and Some Shrubs Used in Medicinal and Ethno-Veterinary Practices in Ruminant Livestock Production in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 22, Article No. 54. https://www.lrrd.org/lrrd22/3/matl22054.htm
[39]	Magwede, K., van Wyk, B.E. and van Wyk, A.E. (2018) An Inventory of Vhavenḓa Useful Plants. South African Journal of Botany, 122, 57-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2017.12.013
[40]	Masika, P.J. and Afolayan, A.J. (2003) An Ethnobotanical Study of Plants Used for the Treatment of Livestock Diseases in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Pharmaceutical Biology, 41, 16-21. https://doi.org/10.1076/phbi.41.1.16.14694
[41]	Moichwanetse, B., Ndhlovu, P., Sedupane, G. and Aremu, A. (2020) Ethno-Veterinary Plants Used for the Treatment of Retained Placenta and Associated Diseases in Cattle among Dinokana Communities, North West Province, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany, 132, 108-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2020.04.005
[42]	Semenya, S.S. and Maroyi, A. (2019) Ethnoveterinary Survey of Plants Used by Bapedi Traditional Healers to Treat Tuberculosis and Its Opportunistic Infections in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. South African Journal of Botany, 122, 401-421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2018.10.010
[43]	Rasethe, M.T., Semenya, S.S. and Maroyi, A. (2019) Medicinal Plants Traded in Informal Herbal Medicine Markets of the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2019, Article ID: 2609532. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/2609532
[44]	Chinsembu, K.C., Syakalima, M. and Semenya, S.S. (2019) Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Traditional Healers in the Management of HIV/AIDS Opportunistic Diseases in Lusaka, Zambia. South African Journal of Botany, 122, 369-384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2018.09.007
[45]	Teklehymanot, T. and Giday, M. (2007) Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used by People in Zegie Peninsula, Northwestern Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 3, Article No. 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-12
[46]	Mesfin, F., Demissew, S. and Teklehymanot, T. (2009) An Ethno-Botanical Study of Medicinal Plants in Wonago Woreda, SNNPR, Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 5, Article No. 28. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-5-28
[47]	Guarrera, P.M. and Savo, V. (2013) Perceived Health Properties of Wild and Cultivated Food Plants in Local and Popular Traditions of Italy: A Review. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 146, 659-680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.036
[48]	Chakale, M.V., Mwanza, M. and Aremu, A.O. (2021) Ethnoveterinary Knowledge and Biological Evaluation of Plants Used for Mitigation Cattle Diseases: A Critical Insight into the True Insight Patterns in South Africa. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, Article 710884. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.710884
[49]	Yigezu, Y., Haile, D.B. and Ayen, W.Y. (2014) Ethnoveterinary Medicines in Four Districts of Jimma Zone, Ethiopia: Cross-Sectional Survey for Plant Species and Mode of Use. BMC Veterinary Research, 10, Article No. 76. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-6148-10-76
[50]	Teklay, A., Abera, B. and Giday, M. (2013) An Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Plants Used in Kilte Awulaelo District, Tigray Region of Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 9, Article No. 65. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-65
[51]	Mthi, S., Nyangiwe, N., Menhas, R., Mushunje, A. and Ighodaro, I.D. (2018) Women’s Participation in Livestock Activities under Small-Scale Farming System in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Applied Animal Husbandry & Rural Development, 11, 14-21. https://bit.ly/2XmAb50
[52]	Abera, Y. and Mulate, B. (2019) Ethno-Veterinary Medicine: A Potential Alternative to Animal Health Delivery in Wolmera District, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Veterinary Journal, 23, 111-130. https://doi.org/10.4314/evj.v23i1.8
[53]	Tomeka, T., Mremi, R., Machumu, A., Sanya, J. and Kisingo, A.W. (2020) Ethnoveterianry Practices of Medicinal Plants Used by Tribal People in the Northern Tanzania. Research Square. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-100745/v1
[54]	Canales, M., Hernandez, T., Caballero, J., Romo de Vivar, A., Avila, G., Duran, A. and Lira, R. (2005) Informant Consensus Factor and Antibacterial Activity of the Medicinal Plants Used by the People of San Rafael Coxcatlan, Puebla, Mexico. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 97, 429-439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.11.013
[55]	Hassan-Abdallah, A., Merito, A., Hassan, S., Aboubaker, D., Djama, M., Asfaw, Z. and Kelbessa, E. (2013) Medicinal Plants and Their Uses by the People in the Region of Randa, Djibouti. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 148, 701-713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.05.033