1. Introduction
In 2014, the government of South Africa established Operation Phakisa with the intention of unlocking the economic potential of the country’s oceans. Through this process, six focus areas were identified, and action plans were developed to stimulate the ocean’s economy. Coastal and Marine Tourism (CMT) was one of the sub-sectors identified as having a huge potential to create jobs, address economic inequalities and alleviate poverty, particularly in rural and township communities (Operation Phakisa, 2014).
The government of Kwa-Zulu Natal (KZN), through Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs (EDTEA), continues to identify and prioritise economically viable activities needed to grow the economy of KZN. In line with the objectives of the province and national government, as well as the vision of the 2050 African Integrated Maritime Strategy and Provincial Growth and Development Strategy and Plan, the vision for the KZN maritime Industry is: “To position KZN as a gateway to South Africa, Africa and the World, through efficient and sustainable utilisation of marine and maritime assets in order to stimulate economic growth and development” (KZN Department of Economic Development and Tourism, 2013).
While Coastal Marine tourism has been developed in economic hubs like Durban and along the South Coast, very little is known about CMT in the rural coastal districts of Ugu, iLembe, King Cetshwayo and uMkhanyakude. In addition, local communities within the rural areas have been marginalized for years, playing a minimal role and for the most part, being excluded from the lucrative tourism value chain. The Moses Kotane Institute has been tasked to conduct the relevant research within these areas.
The purpose of this study was therefore to identify and understand the coastal and marine tourism profile including its opportunities and challenges within the abovementioned municipal districts. The resultant report has been crafted to assist the government of KwaZulu Natal developing and implementing appropriate interventions and programmes that are geared towards stimulating local economic growth, especially for the rural and township communities. Firstly, the paper presents the background which highlights the aim and purpose of the research study. Secondly, the methodology is presented. Thirdly, the summary of the research findings is presented. Next, the data is then analysed to synthesise the findings and highlight areas that need attention. Lastly, the paper presents recommended interventions and programmes.
2. Research Background
Recreational traveling is not a new phenomenon. It has been present for centuries and can be traced back to pre-biblical times, however, it only became a globally lucrative business towards the end of the twentieth century (Adler, 1989). The development of the tourism sector has been remarkable, contributing to 20 percent of the world’s employment rate, leading to claims that it is one of the most important business sectors in the globe (Jenner & Smith, 1992; Miller, 1990). Tourism has indeed become a significant contributor to the global economy and the same can be said for the province of KwaZulu Natal. According to Treasury, tourism is a major contributor to the South African economy, and the KZN economy as well, having contributed 18.8 billion rand to the KZN economy in 2017 (Treasury, 2017).
At the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in 2014, CMT was identified as one of the key sectors contributing towards the development of the oceans economy (United Nations, 2014). Coastal and Marine Tourism is a subsector that comprises of several industry clusters: the boating and cruising cluster, the sports and recreation cluster and the leisure cluster. Each cluster has specific activities attached to it. The activities attached to the boating and cruising cluster include yachting, cruising, ferrying, hospitality and entertainment. Those that are attached to the sports and recreation cluster include marine activities, diving, swimming and sailing, while those relating to the leisure cluster include eco-marine tourism, real estate, as well as adventure and nature viewing (such as whale watching and shark cage diving), among other activities (Human Resource Development Council, 2014).
With a diverse range of coastal and marine tourism activities, a range of small, medium-sized and large businesses, either directly or indirectly benefit from the sector. Those directly associated with marine tourism include small, one-person operations such as charter fishing-boat operators, sea-kayak tour guides and scuba-diving instructors (Miller, 1990). They also include moderate-sized private companies such as whale, watch cruise operators and charter-yacht companies, as well as large, multinational corporations such as cruise-ship companies. An even greater number of businesses and agencies are indirectly associated with marine tourism. A few examples include boat maintenance shops, coastal resorts, scuba tank-fill shops, windsurfer rental agencies, fishing equipment suppliers, island ferry services, souvenir collectors, artists and even rubbish collectors.
Several stakeholders also play an important role in the governance of marine tourism. Government agencies play an important role in the monitoring and management of marine tourism through the establishment of marine park management authorities, fisheries control agencies, tourism marketing and promotional bodies, law enforcement agencies, and marine safety organisations. Non-profit groups, on the other hand, support the industry by establishing clubs for scuba diving, surf lifesaving, yachting, windsurfing, surfing, and fishing, while environmental groups ensure that all these activities are confined to standards that serve to conserve the environment. There is no estimated value of the marine tourism industry, as it includes many diverse sectors. There is no doubt, however, that the annual turnover is substantial and that it forms a significant business sector with widespread economic influence. This is particularly so for island and coastal communities, where marine tourism can form the single most important economic activity (Miller, 1990).
South Africa has a vision to grow into a world-class and sustainable CMT destination that directly benefits its population (NPME, 2022). According to the 2016 Operation Phakisa CMT Lab presentation, South Africa aspires to be ranked amongst the top 10 destinations globally with an annual growth rate of 9%, to encourage economic growth, transformation, and sustainability (NPME, 2022). Prior to the Covid-19 pandemic, coastal and marine tourism was expected to create about 116,000 direct jobs by 2026, reducing poverty, inequality, and unemployment. However, several barriers to the attainment of this goal persist. Unfortunately, the tourism sector has been badly affected by the Covid-19 pandemic (Operation Phakisa, 2015). The continuous travel bans and the hard lockdown, have been contributing factors.
This study sought to identify coastal and marine tourism assets, infrastructure, opportunities, challenges, and existing support programmes in rural and township areas in KwaZulu-Natal because of the massive potential of the CMT industry to create rural and township jobs in Kwa-Zulu Natal. The Provincial Planning Commission in KZN has further earmarked the industry as one of its priorities, and therefore allocated more resources to its development, which encourages its growth and sustainability in the long-term (KwaZulu Natal Provincial Planning Commission, 2012). The recommendations from this report will help the Provincial Government formulate policies that support the development of the sector and implement effective fact-based programmes which could result in increased participation of rural and township communities in the CMT industry.
3. Methodology
To complete this study, a mixed research methodology was utilised. Initially, information regarding the local CMT-related businesses and local economic development (LED) officials with a coastal marine tourism portfolio was sourced through the relevant municipalities in the uMkhanyakude, King Cetshwayo, iLembe and Ugu Districts (Table 1). These parties were then contacted, and
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Table 1. Business and government survey participants (Source: Moses Kotane Institute).
interview times decided. The survey questionnaires were completed in the presence of MKI staff, who were able to explain the intention behind each question. To ensure that the results obtained were reliable, and correctly represented the views and challenges of the communities, the municipality assisted researchers reach out to them. Posters were placed within prominent meeting places, inviting community members to focus group meetings. The focus groups were more representative of the communities being surveyed, containing businessmen, fishermen, community and tribal leaders and other parties interested in knowing more about coastal marine tourism.
Although the issues discussed flowed from the questionnaire, discussions were more robust and relaxed, with focus group members being more forthright and honest. Some of the feedback obtained from these sessions had serious legal implications. To ensure that the information obtained was legitimate, all the parties referred to as having been abusive or discriminating against community members were contacted and provided with an opportunity to defend themselves. The information provided was also verified through desktop research and due diligence trips, in which the affected areas were visited and interviews with randomly picked community members, held. Within the Ugu district, we worked directly with the Turton LED manager, as there were no local businesses which were found engaging directly with the CMT value chain. To ensure that we understood the economic and geographic landscape, due diligence was conducted along the South Coast from Durban to Port Edward. The research activities were conducted from March 2020 to October 2021.
4. Literature Review
The KZN coastline is rich in natural resources and extremely fragile natural habitats. To preserve KwaZulu Natal’s fragile natural heritage, much of the coastline north of Durban was rezoned, and the land and its resources set apart as marine protected zones, game reserves, protected forest areas and private game reserves. From the map below, the protected areas are visible. South of Durban, the area has many coastal tourist towns. This map is meant to provide a basic understanding of the topography of the area and will assist with the discussions within the body of this paper.
The tourism industry can be seen as having two differing aspects. Those who are directly involved in tourism and the people who benefit from tourism indirectly. Within the context of rural development, there are two main questions that researchers have been asking. One refers to whether rural communities are benefiting from coastal maritime tourism within their areas. In the case of tourism within the Northern KZN, this question is directly related to the spin-off effects of tourism within the many coastal nature reserves and game parks. There is then the question of whether and to what extent the rural communities are directly involved in the value chain activities surrounding tourism in the area. Where tourism chains ae well established, the question then relates to the
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Source: Trade and Investment KwaZulu Natal, www.tikzn.co.za.
Figure 1. Map of the KZN coastal region from Kosi Bay to Port Edward.
possibility and extent of absorption into current value chain networks and the formation of new networks (ISimangaliso Wetland Park, 2020). Within the districts of uMkhanyakude and King Cetshwayo tourism is linked to the surrounding nature and game reserves. Within the King Cetshwayo area and the iLembe district there is the additional element of Richards Bay Minerals and other smaller mining companies. The iLembe and Ugu district benefit from their proximity to Durban, Ballito and King Shaka International Airport as well as the ports of Durban and Richards Bay. Unlike the KZN north coast, it is a very built-up area, with a well -established CMT infrastructure. The plight of the few rural communities living along these coasts has been dealt with at a municipal level, with no research having been done on their access to CMT value chains, as the communities living along these coastlines are able to benefit, more easily, from the many and diverse CMT -related activities in the districts. The relevant question for these communities relates to their ability to initiate CMT-related businesses within their own coastal areas.
The King Cetshwayo area is home to both the protected tourist destinations as well as Richards Bay minerals, a mining company which has been extracting heavy minerals from the sand dunes in the Northern area of KZN since 1976 (Ott, 2017). The sand dunes are a part of the natural heritage found within the region. Like all mining operations, the commercial opportunities presented by the mining company attracted many jobseekers to the area, increasing the population density within the rural areas. The increased population has led to the gradual decrease in natural forests in the area as well as the dilution of local culture and tradition. This has also increased the socio-economic problems in the area. Problems such as HIV/AIDs, price increases, educational challenges and youth unemployment have increased the burden of the tribal authorities. Due to unemployment, many of the youth have increasingly become involved in hunting with dogs as a sport, rather than a livelihood. Hunting, together with the setting of snares, has had a major impact on the density of mammals and ground-dwelling birds typical of coastal dune forests.
In addition to the human impacts, there are also the natural resource and food security impacts. The existence of the mine and the resultant human impacts has threatened both food security and the availability of natural resources. The influx of immigrants seeking employment in the area has meant that areas which were previously used for farming were converted to peri-urban areas (Ott, 2017). The area consists of tribal lands which have limited government services. Population growth has negatively impacted the biodiversity in the area as both the competition for land, resources and jobs has increased. Irresponsible land stewardship has resulted in houses being erected in low-lying and temporarily dry wetland areas, while swamp forests are transformed into sugarcane fields, and lake edges are planted with timber which is often damaged after rain when the water table recovers. The impacts on sensitive biologically diverse habitats such as wetlands and swamp forests are irreversible, however. In addition to these direct impacts, there has been an increase in the development of small plantations around the mining area since 2005. As some of these plantations are not properly managed, there have been both direct and indirect impacts on the surrounding areas. The expansion of the plantations into natural lands has not only resulted in direct habitat and biodiversity losses, but the poor management of these plantations constitutes a major fire hazard in the area, endangering people’s lives as well as surrounding natural vegetation.
While mining is not a tourism-based activity, the impact of RBM on sensitive natural areas, both directly and indirectly, do influence the coastal marine tourism activities within the area. For this reason, it has been important to understand the nature of RBM, the range and scope of its activities and the human impacts on surrounding protected areas or heritage sites. Given that RBM is already mining the precious metals from the ocean-based dunes, which are themselves part of the sensitive environmental heritage of the area, it is a moot point to question whether the mine should exist. The economic impact on the area is clear. As with all activities, there is a trade-off between two economic realities. Within the jurisdiction of RBM, CMT and CMT-related activities have had to be sacrificed for the economic gains which the mines have brought to the area. What we would then have to determine is how the negative impacts of the mining activities on the surrounding protected areas and natural resources can be managed to prevent further degradation to the area and ensure that other CMT -related activities in the area can be positively promoted. The area under discussion is not only room to Richards Bay Mining company but also the iSimangaliso World Heritage site.
A question which has been raised is whether the rural communities are benefiting from tourism in their areas. Fairer-Wessels (2017: p. 6), in her research on these impacts, within the context of iSimangaliso Wetland, referred to conclusions reached by Apleni (2013) and Jones (2006). Apleni contended that many community-based tourism projects funded by donors and NGOs have had little success. He referred to the lack of enthusiasm by communities when they realised that few benefits trickle down to them from the tourism industry. This is an obstacle to such projects. He referred to a case study which had been done of two tribal communities, the Mabaso and Mbila, who are found around Lake Sibaya in Kwa-Zulu Natal, to illustrate this. When two tourism facilities were developed, a houseboat and lodge, one for each community, the communities‟ dissatisfaction with the economic benefits which they derived from these developments led to tribal rivalry and conflict. Both these developments were subsequently sabotaged and eventually deserted. He concluded that conflict could result in economic loss for developers and communities when tangible benefits do not reach the communities and where direct value chain participants are the only beneficiaries.
In an earlier study, Jones (2006) showed that conflict and rivalry over coastal areas can exist between local communities and eco-tourism enterprises in Kwa-Zulu Natal. His study suggested that the failure of ecotourism ventures to transform the socio-economic position of rural communities shows that communities are losing their power, control and access to the natural resources that allow them to sustain themselves. Although conservation and tourism activities should be mutually supportive, they often conflict with each other. As a result, communities derive very little economic benefit from these activities due to high “leakage” in the tourism industry, where profits accrue away from the area of operation. The loss of control over local tourism development by local communities has been linked to a lack of awareness about information and/or the poor dissemination of information. The uMkhanyakude District coastline is fully under the control of the iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority, so these communities do not have direct access to the sea (Gumede, 2009).
Within the context of the King Cetshwayo, we have the people of Khula village and the Khula village project. Khula Village is located about 10 kilometres west of the town of St Lucia (Mesencho, 2012). This area falls within the jurisdiction of the Mtubatuba local municipality and the larger uMkhanyakude District Municipality. The main village is approximately 12 kilometres from the southern section of the ISimangaliso Wetland Park. The residents of Khula Village are actively involved in the tourism facilities and activities to be found in the Isimangaliso Wetland Park as they live within the vicinity of the park. The town of Mtubatuba is the main administrative centre for the citizens of Khula Village. Some of the residents of Khula Village are employed in the town of St Lucia and work in homes, restaurants, lodges and shops. Several of the residents are either owners of small-sized craftworks or employed by the well-off sectors of this region. Apart from working for businesses in town, some Khula Village residents are in the business of selling craftwork on the side of the road going to St Lucia, or at the market area in St Lucia. This exposes their products to both the domestic and international tourist markets. Despite their participation within the CMT value chain, and the area being rich in natural resources, the people within the area are still struggling against poverty. The study showed that, despite some community members being included in the tourism value chain, most of its population lives with poverty problems because of limited or unequal access to and poor management of the natural resources within the area.
Local communities are strongly dependent on the natural resource base for food and employment (Mesencho, 2012: p. 56). Most of them have no land to farm. Fishing and tourism -related activities are the central economic activity and primary occupation in the areas. Fishing activities in the ISimangaliso area are classified into three categories: subsistence, medium and large scale. This division is based on the fishery laws, level of investment and methods of fishing activities conducted by individual households. Subsistence fishing is generally found as the most common form of fishing in the communities of Khula Village. Prior to the Small-scale Fisheries Act of 2014, these fishers were limited to subsistence farming, with little prospect of them being able to make a living commercially. Subsistence farming involves family fishing methods while using the simplest gear to fish within the fishing grounds nearby the village. Fish catches are used for household consumption. Subsistence fishermen would keep almost all processed products for daily consumption. Besides fishing, the locals also combine fishing and non-fishing trade activities to form systems of mixed livelihood strategies which can provide more economic earnings to support their households. These include craft-making, working for tour operators, animal rearing, gardening, working in the fishing lots, grocery selling, providing services for basic commodities and crop farming.
Poverty in Khula has been attributable to many critical factors such as inadequate economic opportunities, inadequate social public services and infrastructure, lack of ownership rights and access to common property resources, low capabilities and skills levels, insecurity, social inequality or exclusion, and vulnerability. These combined factors have contributed towards the worsening of the living conditions of the local communities. Biodiversity conservation remains a challenging task to overcome because of its close relationship with local livelihood options. Most villagers have low education levels and are unable to solve their livelihood problems and vulnerability. They are not without remedies, however. Their traditional knowledge, practices and technologies are suitable for the geographical and environmental contexts of the place.
According to Mesencho (2012: p. 54), the case of Khula Village shows that the main motivation of the rural poor is not necessarily the maximization of income, but rather their drive for survival. The attitudes and perceptions among most of the vulnerable local communities in Khula Village may therefore conflict with the economic goals of the government, which focus mainly on primary production in rural areas. Several programs aimed at increasing the economic productivity of local livelihoods or to providing sustainable local livelihoods have failed to determine integrated rural development approaches needed to deal with existing pitfalls. It also shows a lack of success in investing in the construction or expansion of local capital. There is therefore a need to ensure that future government projects are informed at grass roots level and consider the real challenges facing these communities.
While the above research highlights the plight of these rural communities, they do not provide solutions or extend to the status of CMT within the coastal communities, their willingness to partake of CMT related activities or initiate their own businesses. These communities have always been seen as beneficiaries of established systems, being at the mercy of more established value chain systems. There has not been a study done on the challenges facing those who would want to participate in theses value chains as initiators and owners. This study provides a holistic approach to CMT along the KZN coastline, seeking to determine the present reality of CMT within these communities so that they may be empowered to grow and develop their own CMT related businesses and value chain opportunities.
5. Research Findings Summary for the uMkhanyakude, King Cetshwayo, iLembe and Ugu Districts
5.1. Costal and Marine Tourism Products
Marketing a tourist destination is not only about the physical tourism assets and infrastructure; there should also be sufficient attractive tourism products. These include products that tourists can use/experience during their stay at the destination. Furthermore, the value chain is comprised of the tourism products in the area; for example, if the tourism product/experience is kayaking, the value chain will include kayaks, safety gear, personnel to guide the experience, etc. If the participation of local businesses in the value chain is needed to manifest government goals, local people would require an understanding of the products/experiences offered at the destination.
To this end, researchers posed a question on the available products/experiences in the surveyed areas. Within the uMhlabayalingana Municipal District, snorkelling, deep-sea fishing, tiger fishing, ocean safaris, scuba diving, estuary cruises, hiking trails, turtle tours, game drives, cultural tours, canoeing, diving clubs, whale watching, tour guiding, craft market centres, surfing, beach horse riding, beach biking, 4 × 4 and beach hikes and beach sand games were all identified as CMT active products/activities within the district. Fishing was identified as a major product in all the areas represented, namely Matubatuba, Mbazwana, uMhlabayalingana, Hluhluwe and Hlabisa. Within the King Cetshwayo District, the following CMT activities were available: sailing, jet skiing, scuba diving, deep sea fishing/ bottom fishing beach biking, cruise liner, shipping, cycling, dolphin-watching, canoeing, Kwabiyela Tourism Route, Richards Bay Mine Tours and the Bandlozini Tourism Route.
The iLembe District has a greater basket of activities available, including boat, turtle and cultural tours, hiking trails, snorkelling, deep sea fishing, ocean safaris and kayak fishing, whale watching and estuary cruises, commercial diving, aquaculture, craft, swimming, driving sand cars, collecting shells and selling refreshments, holiday resorts and diving clubs, quad bike riding, water awareness programmes, surfing (Ballito Pro), beach attractions, Hole-in -the -wall, Thompson Beach, Kob and Tilapia farming and Lake Shaka. There are, in addition, women and young people who sell food, umbrellas and other products, like wooden trays and animal carvings. Natural attractions like the Amatikulu River mouth, the Amatikulu Game Reserve as well as Wanga, Dokodweni and uHwebede beaches were also mentioned. Within the Turton area, the community is primarily a fishing community. No other activities were identified.
5.2. Tourism Assets and Infrastructure
Tourism assets and good infrastructure are very important for the tourism destination to be accessible by tourists. Tourism assets in the context of the rural coastal areas of KwaZulu Natal include the ocean, the estuaries, the dams, protected coastal terrestrial and marine sites and other physical tourist attractions. Having the assets without the required infrastructure to access such assets severely limits the attraction of tourists to the destination. To this extent, the research sought to gain insight into the tourist assets and the infrastructure that exist within these areas.
All the uMkhanyakude participants stated that the district does not have enough infrastructure or assets to support CMT businesses. The area lacks good quality roads and transportation is thus very difficult, except for areas such as St Lucia where the road is in better condition. Municipalities and provincial government appear to have little input into what happens along the coastline within the uMkhanyakude District because the iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority (IWPA) reports to national government. The municipality is not able to plan any infrastructure near the ocean, including building access roads. As things stand there is no proper road access to the ocean, except in Sodwana Bay and St Lucia. At St Lucia beach, the municipality forcefully built the ablution facilities but have not been able to maintain them. There are no boats and no marina/moorings for boats if they were to be acquired. There are no storage or cold room facilities for fish. The estuary mouth is closed, making it difficult to launch boats or access fishing spots. Participants were not aware of why this was so. Furthermore, the view was that proper estuary management is required, and that equitable access should be afforded to all communities. To compound matters, basic infrastructure is lacking, such as toilets at tourist sites. There are security concerns around the rivers where there are crocodiles, and the beaches are not considered secure as there are no shark nets. The participants’ sentiments were that if or when the infrastructure is considered for improvement, it should not be centralised as this would exclude/cut off access to and from the rural areas. A well organised market structure for vendors within tourism sites is also required. Officials also identified a serious need for processing plants or machinery.
Within the King Cetshwayo District, three main areas were mentioned as being important and relevant
1) Port Dunford Beach by the uMlalazi River Mouth. While the Port Dunford beach is a place with huge tourist potential, it lacks development and infrastructure.
2) The King Cetshwayo monument. The King Cetshwayo monument, which honours the departure and arrival of the Zulu King to and from the Port of Richards Bay when he went to England, is not in a good state and does not adequately symbolise the honour of the king. There is much that can be done to develop this site to attract tourists. The community advocates for the development of a small harbour with proper infrastructure as they feel this will introduce many economic activities. There is an environmental lobby group against the development of this initiative as they feel this will negatively affect the sharks breeding at the river mouth.
3) The Crocodile Dam KwaBiyela village camping site. The Crocodile Dam kwaBiyela village is a beautiful camping site with lot of economic activities. There are local childrens’ music groups that provide entertainment to visitors. Forum participants spoke of a study done to determine the economic development potential of the area. They were unaware of the conclusions reached and agreed that there was a need to do a follow-up on that initiative, find out if it had been concluded and what was the outcome thereof. In addition to direct economic issues, the Mthiyane nation still nurses a grievance regarding its forced removal from the ocean economy by Sir Richards.
The iLembe District, participants provided many different answers relating to job creation and infrastructure. Some of the issues raised include:
1) The main roads need to be tarred, beaches need to be cleaner during the festive season, shark nets are needed for the beaches and fences around crocodile and hippo infested waters, toilets and shelters are needed on the beaches together with structures where vendors can sell their products to tourists. They also asked for umbrellas to be placed on the beaches, cold rooms, and other equipment to assist fishermen and bridges across the rivers.
2) With regards safety needs, participants spoke of the need for lifeguards on the beach day and night, security measures to be applied on sites with increased service delivery and rubbish collection.
3) With regards job creation goals, some felt that assistance in the fish farming business was highly ignored at the local, national, and provincial level, feeling that race may be the issue. They asked that resources such as boats, fishing tools and shelters be provided. They also asked for assistance with licencing and municipal programs to impart the relevant skills, with services being provided fairly. They mentioned that business is seasonal, mostly in the summertime and referred to the need for well organised market structure for vendors at tourism sites. In the context of cooperatives, there is a need for the municipalities to liase more with the communities.
4) There is also a need for processing plants and machinery. Fishermen have no place to store their catches. There are also no small hubs for fishing boats and cruising boats. There is a need for infrastructure like dams that are fenced and maintained for use when the municipality holds events like the Midmar mile. Participants commented that only white people have benefited from CMT opportunities, it is time for black people to benefit.
5.3. Awareness about Opportunities in the Coastal and Marine Tourism Value Chain
Questions were posed on what value chain opportunities exist, what support programmes are in place and what funding institutions provide CMT-sector specific funding. The responses from the business representatives and government officials within the uMkhanyakude District indicated a lack of awareness about the value chain opportunities, despite having listed several tourism products in the district. Government officials listed opportunities such as tour guiding and tour operations. Further, they listed transporting tourists, a pack house for the fish, a seafood restaurant and tourist accommodation. The views were expressed that local people with experience in CMT businesses should be used to help local communities channel the tourism opportunities in their areas. It was agreed that the best way to spread awareness about the CMT value chain opportunities is for institutions like MKI and local government to disseminate information about CMT. This applies also to awareness about government support programmes and funding. The King Cetshwayo participants said there are currently no existing associations or forums serving the black population. Participants indicated, however, that they do participate in white-only clubs when invited by their white counterparts. It was clear that by not having an associations or forum they may be missing an opportunity to present their case as a united voice. It is very difficult for government to respond to individual’s demands or requests. Within the iLembe district, participants referred to value chain opportunities such as Deepsea fishing, fish farming and canoeing, restaurants, bicycle and scooter rental, beach resorts, the Ballito Pro, service rentals, boat cruises, boat fishing, campsites and B and B’s, Nkwazi camp, water sports, tour guides, whale watching, snorkelling and scuba diving as well as educational tours.
5.4. Government Support Programmes Directed at Coastal and Marine Tourism Businesses
The responses to the questionnaire would lead researchers to believe participants representing business are not aware of the government support programmes. Interestingly, contrary to the views expressed by the local community, government officials stated that government is doing what can be done to support local businesses, for example, the Travel Indaba in Durban, issuing of fishing licences to some businesses and conducting business awareness activities to promote business compliance. It was notable that the officials did not identify other support programmes that researchers identified when conducting desktop reviews. During the focus group discussion, several support programmes were put forward as examples of government’s support programmes. Programmes that were discussed include craft markets or centres around the district. Such centres are Siyabonga and St Lucia Craft Centre, Zamimpilo Craft Market and others. These centres were built by government together with other partners in order to support local communities so that they can benefit from CMT activities. There is a programme to license fishing cooperatives which is done by EDTEA. There is another programme aimed at capacitating the local tour guides. Participants were not aware of who ran this programme. The Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DFFE) was said to have a programme where they send students overseas to study. On their return they are provided with funding to implement their business idea. EDTEA plays its part as far as training tour guides and tour drivers. It also assists them with obtaining licences to operate, and with events or programmes or activities that promote CMT within the province/municipality.
It is telling that the workshop participants, both local businesspeople and government officials, did not identify many programmes that the researchers discovered when conducting the desktop review. These programmes include the international coastal clean-up championed locally by Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, the National Alternatives Livelihoods Programme, Maputaland Turtle Monitoring, Honorary Officer Youth Development Programme. Also included is the Subsistence Fisheries Programme which was managed and implemented on a national basis by Marine and Coastal Management (MCM) and funded by the Norwegian Government.
It was acknowledged through participants’ expressed sentiments that the support offered to local people and businesspeople is limited and inadequate. Cited examples of inadequacy include the damage to the ecosystem which has resulted in a lack of fish. This in turn, has resulted in few or no tourists seeking fish and therefore very limited to no income for people who depend on the fish sales to tourists. Other respondents reasoned that government and the municipality do not give full support to the rural community businesses. Although there was talk of permits for commercial fishing, no permits have been issued. The province does not play a role in assisting with the challenges such as access to tourist sites. There were strong views that in cases where limited support is provided, there is a lack of transparency about who can participate and benefit from government interventions. It was held that government should ensure the community’s equitable access to government support programmes. Within the King Cetshwayo context, participants stated that there is no proper coordination and/or follow-up by national and provincial government on the effectiveness of whatever programme or project they introduce to local communities. Most of the programmes end up not delivering the desired outcome. They also felt that the local municipal officials are not doing enough to help local community members explore the coastal and marine tourism industry. There is no programme or content to share with those with an interest in the maritime economy. They believed the local officials lack knowledge or understanding of CMT. There is, in addition, a general lack of awareness when it comes to coastal and marine tourism activities and economic benefits. As such there is a great need to promote coastal and marine tourism content to rural and township communicates including in inland areas.
The desktop review identified a significant number of tourism products and support programmes relating to CMT. A few other CMT-specific funding institutions were identified. However, if the communities are to participate meaningfully in the CMT value chain, they would first need to be aware of the CMT value chain and of business opportunities within this identified value chain. Furthermore, it is submitted that local communities would require some support from government, and they would need to raise funding to either start or grow their CMT ventures. From a local government perspective, the officials would need a better than average understanding of the CMT value chain, other government support programmes and information about funding institutions if they are to facilitate LED centred on CMT.
5.5. Awareness about Funding Institutions Focusing on Coastal and Marine Tourism Businesses and Support Services
Participants from the business sector did not identify any funding institutions focusing on CMT. This was despite lack of funding being cited as a major constraint to businesses in the sector. Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs, The Small Enterprise Development Agency and Trade and Investment KwaZulu-Natal (TIKZN) were identified by government as CMT funding institutions. Moses Kotane Institute, iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority (IWPA), DFFE (Coast Care) and the municipalities were identified as institutions that support people who are interested or involved in CMT business ventures. It was held that more support is required in assisting local people to access funding, particularly assistance in completing applications for funding. Within iLembe District, participants were only aware of Mandeni Fishers and the municipality which provided boats for fishing. King Cetshwayo participants said there was currently no support but referred to a previous Expanded Public works Program (EPWP which had been successfully run by Ezemvelo Wildlife and Public Works. The programme dealt with the cleaning the coastline of marine pollutants and was delivered through local schools (DFFE, 2014). When the programme ended local councillors apparently raised the importance of such a programme because of its educational value and linkages to the marine economy. With regards to funding institutions participants referred to Operation Vula, iThala Bank, Tourism Transport Fund (not known) and the KZN Growth fund (not known). Participants believed there should be specific funding made available for small-boat development. They also commented that funding institutions have stringent funding requirements which are difficult to meet as some of them are blacklisted.
5.6. Coastal and Marine Tourism Structures and Businesses Databases
It is best practice for government and development institutions to engage with organised/formal structures when discussing topical issues affecting the business verticals. Also, organised structures usually have databases that could be used for recruitment purposes and when broadcasting communication, to reach as many members as may be required by the programme. The make-up of such structures (member demographics) is also important for certain programmes/programme promoters. Questions were posed to the officials and local people about their awareness of local structures. They were asked to name them and whether there are databases of CMT ventures. The responses and discussions are as follows:
It was noted by government officials, supported by business participants, that although there are Community Tourism Organization (CTO) structures at local government level, there is no corresponding provincial structure and that the CTOs remain unknown. It was put forward that if there are other organised tourism business organisations, they may not exhibit demographics that represent the local communities and may be for white-owned businesses. It was indicated during the focus group discussion that Mhlosing Development Agency (an entity of uMkhanyakude District Municipality) might have a database of businesses within the district. Local municipalities would have a database of all tourism accommodations within that municipality. Notwithstanding CTO shortcomings, some partly because of the CMT issues such as access to iSimangaliso Wetland Park, it was decided that more CTOs need to be established in tribal areas.
The King Cetshwayo participants were not aware of any databases while the iLembe participants refereed to the iLembe Enterprise, KwaDukuza Municipality, iLembe Chamber of Commerce, Local Economic development (LED) Community Social development (CSD) and a fish farmer at Mtunzini who helps the community develop Cooperatives. The main structure was in the form of fishing cooperatives. These were set up through the Department of agriculture, fisheries and forestry (DAFF)), now the Department of Environment, Fisheries and Forestry (DFFE). These Cooperatives were set up as part of the Small-Scale Fishers development program. While there was talk of permits being issued for commercial fishing, these have not been issued yet. Government has also built shelters for informal traders and through Moses Kotane Institute, provided information. The iLembe District participants referred to the municipality, the Department of Water Affairs, Agriculture and Fisheries (DWAF), Moses Kotane Institute and iSimangaliso Wetland Park, Ithala, the Department of Environment, Fisheries and Forestry (DFFE), Mandle O Mnothe Institution, government through Operation Phakisa, iLembe Enterprise, the Small Enterprise Development Agency (SEDA), EDTEA, banks as well as the Department of Social Development.
5.7. Coastal and Marine Tourism Opportunities
Local economic development is essential. It is desirable that local people should benefit from the assets and infrastructure of their respective districts, such as iSimangaliso Wetland Park, Jozini Dam and the many world-class game reserves within KZN. The researchers sought to ascertain whether local communities are participating and or taking advantage of CMT opportunities in their district. The question was asked whether respondents believe local people are fully benefiting from CMT opportunities and to support their assertion, regardless of their answer. It was reasoned that if the answer to the research question is that local communities are not taking advantage of the opportunities, barriers to this process would be identified.
Both the business and government participants posited that the local communities are not fully exploiting CMT opportunities. There are several factors cited that impact on the community taking advantage of the opportunities. Such factors are shown in Table 2.
While there were very few positive aspects reported, these were shown in Table 3.
It is evident that the local communities face several obstacles preventing them from exploiting or taking advantage of business opportunities. It is also evident that local government face the same issues, limiting them in aiding local businesses. There were many suggestions as to how some of the issues can be overcome, including the need for government to provide relevant skills to people in rural areas, teaching people how to develop CMT businesses. Such skills should be provided in an equitable manner.
Local people with experience should be used to help local communities capture tourism opportunities in their areas. To assist the communities, local
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Table 2. Factors preventing communities from accessing the CMT Value Chain (Source: MKI).
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Table 3. Positive developments impacting the communities (Source: MKI).
municipalities should be capacitated in skills development for domestic industries and business development. It was held that government should discard the notion that support be given only to co-operatives as even co-operatives are not immune to potential failure. Having flagged the issue of rural communities being left behind or excluded, it has motioned that more CTOs or business fora be established in rural areas. Tourism should be marketed in rural areas for awareness and marketed at national and international level, in terms of destination marketing.
5.8. Coastal and Marine Tourism Challenges
Coastal Marine Tourism is a complex system with many stakeholders, actors, and agents involved. There are bound to be challenges. There could be no suitable solutions without a clear understanding of the challenges that impede the CMT development in the targeted districts. Identifying challenges to CMT is central to this study. As such, several questions were asked about the challenges; specifically, respondents were asked to provide a list of challenges. In another question, linked to value chain opportunities, the respondents were expected to and indeed did articulate CMT challenges. The following discussion details the challenges identified through questionnaires and the focus group discussion.
Constraints to the CMT development exist at system level, these being broad challenges affecting the sector in its entirety and at enterprise level affecting individual businesses, even if these are likely to affect many similar businesses. Both are reflected in the challenges described below. There were challenges cited which were common to all communities while others are district specific. These challenges will be divided into challenges experienced by all communities, then the specific challenges (Table 4).
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Table 4. Challenges affecting all communities (Source: MKI).
Challenges specific to all communities
King Cetshwayo challenges
In addition to these challenges, participants mentioned that although the area is beautiful with attractive mountains, it lacks development and infrastructure. Access to the sea is also a problem experienced by most communities living in the coastal areas. There are many reasons for this lack of access.
· Mananga Heritage Site is owned and controlled by Richards Bay Minerals (RBM). The Mbuyazi nation, which is situated nearby, is not benefiting from its economic potential. Although it has a rich fishing spot and a beautiful beach, this area is underdeveloped. The Mananga Site is a rich tourism route with pockets of rich history about King Shaka. It was also said that the very popular King Shaka’s spear was moulded in this very same place by the Mbuyazi nation.
· Between Sokhulu and Mzingazi, the whole coastal land is owned by RBM. The mine does not allow people to use the land as they wish, thus discouraging coastal economic activities. RMB is mining the sand dunes along the ocean. Workshop participants were outraged about the discriminatory treatment which they faced, stating that local people were denied full access to the ocean whilst others are enjoying unrestricted access. White people are seen having fun with 4 × 4 vehicles, enjoying the coast. As far as they know 1 km from the sea should be owned by government, but this is not the case in their area. There was also a report that the mine had solid plans of opening a new mineshaft, even in places where there is tourism economic potential. They requested government to intervene and address this issue. Their recommendation was that all concerned parties should be brought together for amicable solutions to be found.
· A member of the Community Tourism Organisation (CTO), a local tourism organisation in 2018, indicated that RBM is open to engagement, is willing to listen to any proposition and has funding opportunities available. This was announced in a meeting which the community recently had with the mine. As the CTO, they are already engaging RBM to explore funding opportunities and requested other people to approach RBM.
· There are companies and organisations who own coastal land like iSimangaliso Wetland Park, Mondi Forest and South African Pulp and Paper Industries (SAPPI,) Transnet (light-house area) and Richards Bay Minerals (RBM) who are blocking local people from freely accessing to the ocean. This was raised as one of the challenges that the local community is experiencing, and which is discouraging them from considering ocean-based economy activities.
· RBM, together with Ezemvelo, closed the Hlabane River Mouth and this has severely affected fishing around the river mouth. It has been reported that Ezemvelo and RBM want to turn this area into a game reserve. To accomplish this goal the local community was moved away from the river mouth, which was then blocked, turning the whole village into a dam. Ezemvelo introduced hippos into the dam. These are now roaming freely in the area. Community members no longer feel safe.
· Participants spoke of their desire to embark on progressive development projects. They were not making much progress, however, as they are struggling to get the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Certificates needed to proceed due to their inability to show that their projects will not affect the environment and whole ecosystems. This is a huge problem because other people are using their inability to source the required EIA to block economic development in black coastal communities.
· Traditional Leaders and Ingonyama Trust representatives spoke of some of the challenges which they faced on the issue of access to land. Community representatives believed their leaders often made wrong decisions on behalf of communities they are representing. For instance, the Sokhulu Trust were donated a boat valued at R500,000 by iSimangaliso. The boat, together with other small boats was used for different water activities. The community is not benefiting from this donation, however. This deal or programme was handled by EDTEA.
· Through the small-scale fisheries policy, a programme by iSimangaliso to build small boats was initiated. It is the communities understanding that this programme was halted when the Phelani River Mouth was closed. While youth were invited to train, the programme did not progress any further.
· Richards Bay Minerals (RBM) operations once prevented a saltwater fish— farming project in the Sokhulu district. This community was chosen because of their mussel-farming skills. This programme was going to be supported by investors from Port Elizabeth. When health inspectors came to inspect the proposed farming sites, they indicated that the project will not be viable because of dirty dust coming from RBM mining operations which was affecting the area. The community missed an economic opportunity as a result.
· There was a strong feeling that certain groups are using environmental policies to block viable economic development projects in black rural areas. Whilst city areas like Durban and Ballito continue to remove forests to build developments, rural communities along the King Cetshwayo coastline are prevented from doing so. It is the community’s observation that the relevant agencies are using double standards. They would like to see these discrepancies investigated.
· Rural and township communities are not benefiting from coastal and marine tourism. The community referred to the closure of the Mfolozi River and Hlabani River Mouths that have been deliberately kept closed to block sea salt water from going up the river. From their understanding, the salt water negatively affects the boat engine lifespan. Lack of direct access to the ocean prevents the communities from taking full advantage of available opportunities (Cyrus et al., 2011).
iLembe District Challenges
· Participants pointed to the fact that the oceans are abandoned during the winter because they are treated as a summer accessory. Greater increase in tourism knowledge, skills and increased numbers of permanent lifeguards will contribute towards job creation. Communities lack financial muscle, which prevents them from taking advantage of limited business opportunities. Others felt that were a lack of business opportunities.
· The greatest challenge to the community appears to be a racial issue. They stated that they do not have fishing licences and are denied opportunities to fish by white people who say that certain portions of the beachfront belong to them. In addition, white managers are problematic. No mention was made of where these managers were from. White fishermen also appeared to be a problem as they had licences as professional fishermen and hindered the community from fishing. In addition to the race issue, the participants felt that urban dwellers benefited more from the opportunities provided than the local people.
· The chiefs were also seen to be more partial to outsiders than their own people. The community had many grievances, feeling that while there where opportunities, they were left out and had to fend for themselves. A member of Co-op said that, with regards a Co-op which had been operational for less than five years, those who were able to prosper did so through research and taking their own initiative to learn. There was a need for career expo’s where community members were invited and told of the available opportunities. The community was also aware of possible smuggling operations, where containers were offloaded at Ballito instead of entering through the port in Durban., Still on the issue of outsiders, only they could use boats to catch fish.
· The second significant challenge is that of lack of awareness and knowledge of the opportunities available and no programs to assist. While youth go to the beach, they are unaware of how to implement beneficial maritime -related programs. In some cases, they are prohibited from participating. This comment relates mainly to the Amatikulu Game reserve, which prevents the community members from fishing in a restricted zone. In addition of lack of knowledge, others referred to the lack of opportunities, finances and resources. Participants also felt that government or the municipality does not give full support to rural or township business. The community will benefit from government skills training programs.
· A more serious issue was raised with regards overfishing and the depletion or scarcity of fish. According to one participant, where the community had benefited from tourism relating to fishing, their opportunities for revenue-creation are now gone. In addition, the entire ecosystem s suffering, including the hippos and the crocodiles. Another stated that, while the community had a good relationship with the management of the reserve, their fish was confiscated when they were caught fishing.
5.9. Support Mechanisms Needed by the Coastal and Marine Tourism Industry
A plea was made that the government should provide more support to black rural and township communities. The following recommendations were made:
· Since maritime businesses are capital intensive there is a need for government to make funding available for small business to be able to buy assets like boats.
· Young people (from coastal and inland areas) must be encouraged to participate in school excursions which include coastal and marine activities.
· Develop programmes to educate black rural kids about maritime sport activities so that they consider a career in this field. For this to be a success, education and training was highlighted as key to sports like surfing and sailing. Government should also identify and support organisations that are involved in developing and training black marine sports.
· There are skilled black workers working in some of the yacht clubs as artisans, but they do not have certification. There is need to create a database of these workers so that they can get their trade certificates.
· There is need to change the mindset and attitude of rural and township communities to view the ocean from an economic point of view through the establishment of awareness programmes. If rural and township communities can start valuing the oceans’ economy the same way they value mines, then CMT in these areas will begin to grow and the community will benefit. It should not be an industry for old people. Younger people should also be encouraged to participate. There was a plea for government to acquire a cruise boat that can take about 15 passengers. It will be used to prepare sailors and to expose black rural and township communities to maritime activities.
· Ntambanani has a beautiful place for boat cruises, a wedding venue and other coastal activities. The place is currently used by black tour guides who escort passengers using paddling boats. There is a call to develop this area to its full potential.
· Open access to the ocean first then government can build small ports/berths and engage Transnet to allow disadvantaged rural and township communities to utilise its infrastructure or facilities to do their business. Proper roads and infrastructure must be built to promote tourism in the outlying rural coastline, thus promoting marine activities.
· Assist and support the development of vocational colleges focusing on maritime (sailing skills). The government must identify and engage local people with knowledge and skills to operate colleges which impart sailing skills to the young people. There is currently a programme supported by the Department of Sport and Recreation to train sailing students through the Zululand Yacht Club. About 17 black students were trained in 2019.
· iSimangaliso Wetland Park is reportedly preventing local people from harvesting trees, water and marine plants. This has affected the craft and traditional mats sewing businesses. The cashflow of people invested in this business has been negatively affected as they are no longer able to sell their art to tourists and the public. iSimangaliso must be requested to relax its regulation so that the local economy can be able to grow using these natural resources. (This perception of the community is erroneous as iSimangaliso Wetland Park is bound by legislation. There remains the issue of rural awareness programmes to educate the communities regarding the mandate of the various ecotourism sites and the corresponding governance thereof.)
· The workshop concluded the session by making a request to regulate the tour guide and operator’s industry. Agreement on proper pricing will enable them to avoid unhealthy competition from rivals and monopolisation of the industry.
· There is a need for either more knowledge transfer or the transmission of resources. With regards knowledge transfer, they referred to the need for more educational centres, outreach programs, the promotion of CMT in schools, business centres, websites and newspapers, the community and rural areas as well as assistance with marketing.
· With regards the creation of employment, there was a need to assist people with a passion to do fish farming and other forms of business to prevent people from falling into pyramid schemes. There was a need to increase whale awareness in the communities and develop restaurants and boats for fishing. Employment could also be increased through greater municipal support for the tourism industry, estuary management and controlling of the cost of logistics and transport vans so that it was cheaper for tourists to explore all areas instead of staying in centralised tourist areas and ignoring the rural areas. The municipalities should walk more closely with the communities and assist with the promotion of the fishing industry.
· There are no safe facilities for businesspeople to sell their products. In addition, there needs to be a protection unit that patrols along the ocean to protect businesspeople. There is also a need for tour guides and lifesavers, as their absence makes it difficult for local people to visit the ocean when it is not busy. Participants also complained that they did not have open access to the ocean.
· Cooperation between the government and communities is essential. To this end, government must establish structures that enable to work closely with the communities. Projects and interventions must be done timeously. Extensive knowledge of the opportunities available in the maritime value chain should be provided to the rural communities. together with funding opportunities. Amongst the opportunities mentioned are fishing and bed and breakfasts. Communities should also be provided with skills and know-how on how to establish these businesses. Licences should be provided more easily.
· With regards business development, opportunities must be created for the development of new structures. Developers must be found who can stand in the Kings stead and monitor the oceans and build a chain of stores and dams for the crocodiles, thus creating jobs. The oceans also need to be developed. To improve the cleanliness of our local beaches people must be hired who will clean the beach. Tour guides are needed, and security or marshals placed on the beached to prevent the mugging of tourists.
· Some participants felt that licences should be scrapped. The need for infrastructural development was also mentioned, with participants referring to the need for roads or driveways and network. There is also a need for structures for marketing fish, and berthing boats. Assistance is required from DFFE with regards fishing permits and environmental impacts. Other seaside infrastructures needed are pools along the beach, shelters for displaying beadwork and stalls for selling refreshments. Participants sought easier access to the ocean and felt that Ezemvelo needed to be reformed.
5.10. Coastal and Marine Tourism Opportunities
Respondents agreed that there are opportunities for CMT businesses, albeit most business owners are not able to readily specify such opportunities and cite lack of awareness of the CMT value chain activities. Government officials highlighted the following opportunities:
· Tour guiding/tour operations value chain
· Transporting tourists
· Pack house for fish and other sea products
· Restaurants that would sell fish to tourists
· Accommodation for tourists to sleep locally
· Fishing and scuba-diving
· Awareness about CMT
· Opportunities for aquaculture business promotion and training for tour guides
· Building of establishments like uShaka Marine World in Sodwana and St Lucia.
6. Due Diligence Results
The survey results show that there is a lot of animosity towards the Amatikulu Nature reserve and the Ezemvelo game wardens who patrol the reserve. They have spoken also of the fact that they are prevented from accessing the sea to fish by the same Ezemvelo game rangers who show preference to the white commercial fishermen. Because of the severity of some of these allegations I contacted Ezemvelo game rangers in the area and was able to do a telephonic interview with the media officer Mr Moosa Nthambo and a manager, Mr Truman Buthelezi. I was able to ask them regarding the allegations and they willingly and with great curtesy answered my questions.
The most pressing issue was that of violence towards the fishermen. When asked on this matter the media officer consulted with the manager of the Ezemvelo game rangers in the area who personally answered me and then made himself available to speak to me with regards all the other relevant questions. The officer was adamant that, in the Amatikulu Nature reserve, they have not beaten up any of the fishermen. They referred to the fact that poaching of animals by the community is as rife as fishing without permits. The guards, when they find the poachers, confiscate their prey and tools for poaching but do not hurt the community members. Their aim is to educate them and work with them. For this reason, there are many CCOs which they have formed, who work directly with the community to train then and educate them. These CCOs are held for various relevant issues, such as community poaching, permits and human rights related issues. The manager was adamant that his officers would not hurt the community because they are actively involved in assisting them. The manager felt that, because the community does not speak English well, they may have expressed themselves incorrectly or used the incorrect term.
With regards the issue of fishing, the fishermen all complained about the fact that they had difficulty obtaining fishing permits. The Ezemvelo rangers were adamant that none of the community would fish in the area without fishing permits. While the community said that they were not receiving assistance from the municipality with regards fishing permits, Ezemvelo said that there was error in their thinking because they were aware that they could not obtain assistance from the municipality on this matter. They referred to the three types of fishing permits available to the community. There is the recreational permit used for non -substance fishing reasons. Then there is the substance fishing permit, used by rural communities who rely on fishing for their daily food needs. There are also the small -scale fishing rights, given to communities who rely on fishing for a living. While the small-scale fishers permit is provided by the Department of environment, Fisheries and forestry (DEFF). The other permits can be purchased at the post office, a fact which, according to the Ezemvelo officials, the community is aware of. Their complaints about fishing permits therefore seem unfounded, especially as Ezemvelo, through the CCOs has, made time to educate the community on this matter.
In their responses the community appeared very averse to the Amatikulu Nature reserve and referred to the restrictions which they faced in this area. Not much was said about the other nature reserves. like the uMhalazi Nature Reserve. Mr Buthelezi believed their aversion was related to the nature of the Amatikulu Nature reserve. He explained that some of the Nature reserves are control areas, meaning that there are species which are restricted while other species can be fished. There are then other nature reserves which are restricted areas. The Amatikulu reserve is one of these. All the fish species in this reserve are protected and cannot be fished by anyone. Even though community members are aware of this, they still trespass the reserve and try to fish in these waters. With regards these waters, there are no permits which would apply as all permits are conditional. He explained that with regards the reserve, the coastline, extending 10 km south, was restricted. Only after the restricted area are fishermen able to fish again. This would then explain why no-one can assist the community in this regard.
7. Legislation Overview and iSimangaliso Wetland Park Heritage Site Mandate
Both the community and government officials have painted a negative picture of iSimangaliso Wetland Park and its administration of the resources under its care. Without a proper understanding of its mandate, it is difficult to make accurate recommendations or correctly evaluate the comments and accusations made by the surrounding communities and government officials alike. While there is understandably tension between the protection of the environment and that of human development, the fact that there were no officials who could speak positively about iSimangaliso Wetland Park management policies is concerning.
A decision was taken to investigate the legislation underpinning the policies of iSimangaliso Wetland Park and all other national reserves as well as the UNESCO policies, which it is now bound to comply with, to gain better understanding. The Natal Nature Conservation Ordinance No 13 of 1974 is one of the authoritative legislative sources of law by which the iSimangaliso Wetland Park’s management are bound. At this point it is necessary to point out that while there are many Policy documents and White Papers on Tourism and Community Development, without binding legislation to give authority to these policies, the current legislation takes precedence. As a creature of statute, the Park is bound by legislation and the administrators, communities and government officials must all adhere to the law. Provisions 12 to 27 lay down some founding principles. These are summarized below:
1) The Park cannot utilize its earnings for anything other than the purpose for which it was established and is unable to give anyone its funds. A yearly report must be given to government regarding the use of these funds.
2) The Board is required to secure the resources under its care. This is its primary responsibility.
3) Access to the reserve must be through the proper access points. No one may travel within the reserve without the permission of Park officials.
4) Except for specially designated and appointed officials, no weapons may be carried in or around the reserve.
5) No resources, animal or vegetable, may be sourced from the park without a permit. To do so is a criminal offense. Communities were not allowed to harvest roots, dried or dead wood or twigs from the park.
The National Forestry Laws Amendment Act No 35 of 2005 (Gazette, 2006) echoed these provisions, making it an offense for any person to cut, carry, damage, destroy, remove, transport, export, purchase, sell or donate any protected trees without a licence. These provisions do not make any allowances for communities to enter the park land without permits and do not allow the Park officials to make exceptions for community interests. To do so would cause the officials to violate national legislation.
Legislation was amended under the National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Agreement of 2003 (Gazette, 2004), which had provisions referring specifically to the management of World Heritage Sites. Section 50 permits the management of World Heritage Sites to enter into agreements within the reserve or adjacent to the Site for the sustainable use of resources within the reserve, subject to monitoring. A provision of specific interest to our topic is 39 (2) which deals with the creation of management plans. Where these management plans are being created, they should consider the views of, amongst others, local communities, municipalities, and other relevant governing authorities and interested parties. While this provision does not specifically mention World Heritage Sites, the concept of integrated management plans is found in the World Heritage Convention Act of 1999 (Gazette, 1999).
In preparing its integrated management plan, the management of a World Heritage Site must consider the planning and development plans of regional, local and provincial government. The Board of the World Heritage Site, according to s14(4) must include representatives from local and adjacent communities and tribal authorities. These members should, by design, be able to adequately represent community interests. These interests are catered for in Section 3 of the Act, which refers to the objectives of the World Heritage Sites. These, besides the obvious protection of natural and cultural resources, include the following:
“(h) Encourage job creation in connection with World Heritage Sites.
(i) Promote the development of culturally, environmentally and, if applicable, economically sustainable projects in connection with World Heritage Sites; and
(j) Promote empowerment and advancement of historically disadvantaged persons in projects related to World Heritage Sites.”
The responses provided by the communities adjacent to iSimangaliso, tribal authorities and the municipal officers do not indicate that this is a reality. Rather, the tensions in the area appear to be heightened, with the perceptions of the communities being that the management of iSimangaliso is racist and caters only for white South Africans. While numbers do not often lie, the response of iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority (IWPA) was sought.
Response from iSimangaliso Wetland Park and Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife
Below are the questions posed to the IWPA and the answers received.
1) To what extent is iSimangaliso privy to and compliant with the development and policy plans for local and provincial government for the indigenous people around the Park?
iSimangaliso is privy [to] and compliant with the National Development Plan (NDP), the KZN Provincial Growth and Development Strategy (PGDS) and further fully participates in the District and Local Municipal Integrated Development Plans (IDPs) as well as Local Economic Development (LED) processes and forums. Within the NDP, tourism is identified as a highly labour-intensive industry that stimulates the development of small businesses and generates foreign direct investment and significant export earnings. Still, the rate of transformation in the tourism industry is slow, with few black entrants in the market, for this reason iSimangaliso recognises the National Tourism Sector Strategy 2017 as a vehicle towards People Development and therefore has programs that attract and support more black entrepreneurs as well as SMMEs.
The iSimangaliso Authority also participates in the land restitution process through the KZN Regional Land Claims Commission (RLCC) and the Chief Land Claims Commission (CLCC). This process of land claims seeks to provide redress to the Historically Disadvantaged Communities and has seen the signing of nine co-management agreements with the local indigenous people around the park, thereby ensuring equitable revenue sharing between the Park and the new Landowners.
iSimangaliso also adheres and conforms to the Public Finance Management Act (PFMA) and the Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment Act and all treasury regulations that promote the emancipation of the previously disadvantaged communities.
2) Are there any community and tribal authority Board members and if they are, how active are they in promoting community issues?
The appointment of iSimangaliso Board members is the responsibility of the Minister of DAFF, however the Management Authority assists in circulating the advert to the Traditional and Claimants leadership of iSimangaliso once it has been advertised. In the current Board, Traditional Leadership is represented and in previous Boards as well. They have been very active in promoting community issues and have been very critical of the organization where there is need.
3) Which communities does the Park work with?
iSimangaliso works with the communities living in and adjacent to the park, i.e. Sokhulu, Mpukunyoni, Makhasa, Nibela, Emdletsheni, Mnqobokazi, Jobe, KwaNgwenya, Ntsinde, Mabaso, Mbila, Tembe and the Land Claimants/ Trusts (Sokhulu, Bhangazi, Dukuduku, Western Shores, iMfusi, Makhasa, Qhubekani Mnqobokazi, Libuyile Mabaso, Jobe, Silwane, KwaNgwenya, Triangle, Emandleni and Coastal Forest Reserve).
4) What has the Park done to educate the local communities on the legal requirements needed for item to access resources?
iSimangaliso, through Area Managers, convene meetings and workshops with Traditional Leaderships, Claimants/Trusts and Youth Leadership to explain the process of obtaining a permit to access natural resources. Over and above this, in some sections of iSimangaliso, Ozabeni and Mnqobokazi in particular, there are gate wardens who are deployed to issue permits and explain the process thereof. iSimangaliso also works with Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Community Conservation Officers (CCOs) in promoting responsible use of natural resources and facilitate the issuing of permits.
5) What are the main challenges affecting iSimangaliso with regards community interactions?
In this new paradigm shift with new Management, there are no eminent challenges with regards to community engagement. We are interacting with communities at all levels, building a good working relationship. However, because of the high levels of poverty and unemployment within the uMkhanyakude District, and with tourism being the biggest GDP contributor in the district, immense expectations have been [im]posed on iSimangaliso to deliver on jobs and business for the local communities and therefore conservation-based tourism has become a very contested terrain and has resulted in the mushrooming of various concerned groups. Because of the community challenges expressed above, some communities have resolved [resorted] to illegal activities such as illegal farming in the park zones and this has created hostile relations between the community and the Park, but this is on a very low [small] scale.
6) What plans have been incorporated within the integrated management plan to assist in the economic development of previously disadvantaged communities around and within the park?
iSimangaliso has a Rural Enterprise Programme which is aimed at developing local SMMEs and providing economic opportunities for previously disadvantaged communities within and around the park.
7) The communities speak of the Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife officers shooting at them while fishing. Given that the fishers were unarmed, why was this level of force considered necessary?
Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife is a state-owned entity governed by the Firearms Control Act, 2000 (Act No. 60 of 2000), and the Firearms Policy of 01 May 2013 under section 41.2 which state that a firearm may only be pointed or discharged at another human being when human life is in danger. This policy is established to ensure that the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Board and its employees comply with and support national firearms legislation and will promote a culture of safe and responsible firearms use among employees and the public at large. On the incident above, the policeman who was off duty started firing live rounds to [at] field rangers to escape an arrest and they returned fire near St Lucia. In another separate incident in Kosi Bay the suspect chopped [off] the ear of a field ranger with a bush knife and on his second attempt with a spear the field ranger, fearing for his life, used force. Both incidents were tested in a court of law and [the] field rangers proved that their lives were in immediate danger and were acquitted based on evidence. There is no field ranger that can shoot a fisherman that does not pose immediate danger to his life as they are trained intensively before they are deployed in the field.
8) How is the Park working to diffuse the tensions between itself and local communities and municipalities?
iSimangaliso has the People and Parks Forum which is the platform to engage the community representatives in addressing all community-related issues. This Forum also serves as a consultative platform for members to participate in decision-making. iSimangaliso participate in municipal meetings including Operation Sukuma Sakhe Programmes and attend Traditional Council meetings.
9) What would iSimangaliso Wetland Park like to bring to our attention regards the present unpleasantness and why do you think that the communities feel that Park officials are pro-white?
It should be noted that there are high expectations from the communities in terms of obtaining job and economic opportunities from iSimangaliso. iSimangaliso can only provide what is within its limit. Communities also have a perception that since the new Management of iSimangaliso is dominated by blacks [people] and the new CEO [chief executive officer] is a black person, they should not comply with legislation that governs Protected Areas and Heritage Sites, which is not the case; Environmental Laws are in existence and cannot be compromised. However, iSimangaliso has developed strategies such as the Stakeholder Engagement and Management Strategy and Communication Strategy as part of addressing the community concerns. To this end, iSimangaliso prides itself on the gains that have been made upon the new paradigm shift. Communities themselves have been acknowledging the progress that has been made and really appreciate that they are now part of decision-making and are beginning to see some gains coming towards [in] their direction.
8. Observations and Recommendations
The communities, by virtue of their position, have provided insights that we would not otherwise have had. In addition, they have provided solutions to their problems and challenges. The purpose of this section is not to repeat what the communities have said but to provide additional insights. From the community responses, they put great importance on the government and the municipalities and see their interventions as positive. As such the communities desire government interventions and a closer walk with the different government institutions. This could be because of the tribal system, where the communities work closer with their chiefs and other tribal leaders. While this system has made communities more accepting of government, it has not prepared them for the capitalistic economic system, in which man succeeds not only on effort but businesses networks, which is a facet deeply embedded within the different value chains. These are nuances that are not taught through basic education programs but come with practice and experience, although there is an element of preferential treatment which communities are aware of and have experienced.
A point that has been made abundantly clear is the lack of infrastructure in the different municipal areas. While communities need to take the initiative and learn the relevant skills or prescribe to the relevant programs, without the proper infrastructure and resource management by the LED offices and other government planning agencies, CMT development programmes will not succeed. There is, undoubtedly, a huge responsibility on the different government agencies to deliver and restructure themselves. Within the Ugu District, clear development plans and strategies have been put into place, together with target dates. In addition, the municipality constantly audits its progress, to ensure that projects have indeed been implemented. At a provincial level, it is important that municipalities be properly audited, and the different departments be held responsible to their commitments., They will not be able to complete these commitments without the relevant resources, however, so the correct people and budget allocations will need to be made for the development of the rural coastal areas so education programs, business development and funding initiatives and infrastructure development occurs together.
Another pertinent point relates to the education of communities of the legislative provisions governing the different sectors. The fishing sector is a good example. The coastal communities are mostly subsistence fishers and are considered small-scale fishers. There are then your commercial fishers, who are governed by different legislation. Work with the rural fishing communities helped us to understand the various misconceptions which these communities had with regards legislation. After these issues had been dealt with, the communities were able to progress and let go of the resentment which they held. From the research, we have received both positive and negative feedback about IWPA and Ezemvelo. While resentment and mistrust cannot be erased overnight, deeper understanding of the systems as well as the limitations on IPWA will provide greater clarity. Transparency is therefore required at all levels, as the demystification of management processes and governmental processes will bring greater understanding and trust. This will also help to break through negative mindsets that keep communities in bondage, so that they can then step out and make the changes and commitments needed to break into the CMT value chain. Because these communities are mainly involved in fishing and agriculture, there is a tendency to separate their current activities from the CMT value chain instead of seeing how they can be linked to primary value chain needs. It is therefore important that communities be made to realise that what they do is not outside of these value chain opportunities. Instead, they need to find ways to connect with significant parties within the value chain. Greater communication and partnerships between communities and local government can facilitate and expedite the process.
9. Conclusion
Working with the rural coastal communities in KZN has been an important learning experience, as has been the due diligence process which we undertook in the different municipal areas to verify claims made. Not only have we seen first-hand progress or lack of progress within these areas, but we have witnessed the lack of infrastructure as well. The development of these rural areas will require enormous investment. Because of the size of these rural economies, it will require multiple sector growth for the resources needed for infrastructural development to be accumulated. Within the context of CMT development, the sector cannot be targeted on its own but should be developed with other ancillary sectors, such as fishing, agriculture, construction, accommodation and the food industry. In this way, momentum will be gained to fast track the development of the CMT sector.
Acronyms
Acronym Full meaning of acronym
CCO/F Community Consultative Organisation/Forum
CTO Community Tourism Organisation
CMT Coastal Marine Tourism
DFFE Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment
DWAF Department of Water Affairs, Agriculture and Fisheries
EDTEA Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs
EIA Environmental impact assessment
EPWP Expanded Public Works Program
IWPA iSimangaliso wetland Park Authority
KZN KwaZulu Natal
LED Local economic development
MCM Marine and coastal management
MKI Moses Kotane Institute
RBM Richards Bay Minerals
SAPPI South African Pulp and Paper Industry
SARS South African Revenue Service
SEDA Small Enterprises Development Agency
SMME Small, Micro and Medium Enterprises
TIKZN Trade and Investment KwaZulu Natal
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development