Heritage Attachment and Tourist Behavior in Cultural Heritage Destinations during a Pandemic toward Development of a Strategic Policy Model ()
1. Introduction
The worldwide effect of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020 has been remarkable in the tourism industry, as border closures and travel restrictions have stopped visitors from traveling internationally. This pandemic badly hit many industries, and some hospitality and tourism establishments closed their businesses. The year 2021 remains uncertain and the global forecast to go back to the 2019 level is projected for 2025.
Nevertheless, in 2021, tourists are learning to look for alternative ways to travel and discover new habits, resulting in a change in travel behavior that will stay in the long run. The emerging trends show the shift of tourist behavior towards the new normal. The pandemic has triggered research on tourist behavior in visiting cultural heritage destinations, as evidenced by the study conducted by Kimono Tea Ceremony Kyoto Maikoya (2020) regarding the effects of the pandemic on travel behavior in-depth. They discovered that, in the future, individuals are more likely to avoid large cities and vacation for extended periods. On the other hand, 22% (more often) and 64% (will come back) of the travelers intended to visit (indoor) museums, surprisingly more than before, and join food tours which involve interacting with a group of strangers. 62% is attributable to first-time travelers who still want to see famous historical landmarks. The study predicted that tourist behavior should ignite the passion and optimism that tourism will recover faster. The COVID-19 pandemic scenario makes it relevant to assess factors that influence the travel behavioral intention of tourists. The drop in international tourism took a tremendous toll on local people who rely on the Philippines’ tourism industry.
The Philippines has many cultural heritage destinations to be proud of in different regions and provinces. One of those provinces with richness in culture and heritage is the Province of Iloilo. However, in 2020, the cultural heritage destination was closed to tourists due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. There are two (2) highly urbanized cities and forty-two (42) component municipalities in Iloilo. Iloilo City alone has more than 250 sites comprised of famous heritage houses, buildings, churches, monuments, convents, plazas, and museums, to name a few. However, the study focused on the top ten (10) cultural heritage sites, places, and attractions in the Iloilo Province based on the record of the Provincial Tourism Office. These were St. Thomas of Villanueva Parish, San Joaquin Church, San Joaquin Cemetery, Santa Barbara Church and Convent, Janiuay Cemetery, St. Nicolas of Tolentine Parish in Leon and Guimbal, St. Catherine of Alexandria Parish, St. John of Sahagun Parish, and 18th Century Bantayan.
Previous studies have shown that more experienced tourists tend to have more decisive traveling choices during periods of crisis (Reichel, Fuchs, & Uriely, 2007; Rittichainuwat & Chakraborty, 2009). Moreover, Golet et al. (2020) argued that understanding tourist behavior during and after significant tourism crises is essential to help destinations recover. Agnes and Gamueda (2019) cited Doganer and Dupont (2015) and argued that place attachment is one of the most critical factors influencing visitors’ decisions to visit a specific place or area. Although this statement is supported by Phosikham et al. (2015), past research and theories have overlooked and failed to consider the affective dimension of motivation, especially in the individual’s heritage attachment (Sing’ambi & Lwoga, 2018) to the attractions. To boost tourism, it needs to adjust quickly to changing tourist behavior until COVID-19 is under control. One of the best theories for analyzing tourist behavior is the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) by Ajzen (Ajzen & Kruglanski, 2019). The pronouncements mentioned above motivate the author to study the relationship between heritage attachment and tourists’ behavior in visiting cultural heritage destinations in Iloilo province, Philippines. Moreover, the study ascertains if heritage attachment and tourist behavior vary across the current condition of the cultural heritage destinations (CHD) and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourist travels. Specifically, this study aimed to answer the following research questions:
1) Does the level of tourist behavior vary across the current condition of cultural heritage destinations?
2) Does the level of heritage attachment vary across the current condition of cultural heritage destinations?
3) Does the level of heritage attachment significantly influence tourist behavior?
4) What structural model can be developed to describe the significant relationship between heritage attachment and tourists’ behavior as inputs in designing a strategic policy model for preserving the historical identity and sustainability of the cultural heritage destinations of the Province of Iloilo, Philippines?
The objective of the study is categorized in four important ways. The first two objectives address the associations between tourist behavior and heritage attachment across the current condition of CHDs. No studies have yet existed in the literature to ascertain if heritage attachment and tourist behavior vary across the current condition of the cultural heritage destinations (CHD) and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourist travels. Second, the study of Yu et al. (2019) focuses on place attachment and tourists’ revisit intention; Zhu et al. (2015) analyze tourists’ revisit intention through satisfaction, but these studies were done before the pandemic period, thus in the changing tourist behavior, evidence found before is not conclusive during a pandemic. Third, this study examined the relationship between heritage attachment and tourist behavior. The utilization of the TPB in analyzing attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and revisit intention was demonstrated in many contexts in predicting human decisions and behaviors (Guerin & Toland, 2020). Nevertheless, the critical aspect of the decisions and behaviors comprises tourism destination choices (Eom & Han, 2019; Wu et al., 2017), especially during crises.
Conversely, the novelty of the study is the integration of an extended theory of heritage attachment in visiting CHDs, highlighting the individual’s connection with a heritage that transcends fulfillment, faithfulness, and excitement (Sing’ambi & Lwoga, 2018). In filling the gap, the study attempts to develop a structural model providing a knowledge gap crucial in developing a policy model to help policymakers with destination recovery policy and strategies since no studies have been conducted yet utilizing the association of heritage attachment with tourist behavior during a crisis. Furthermore, the study will add to the growing literature about heritage attachment, the impact of COVID-19 on tourist travel, and tourist behavior that is bound to change in approach to the next normal.
2. Literature Review
2.1. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Coronaviruses (CoV) are a broad group of respiratory viruses with positive-stranded RNA. The crown-shaped points on their surface give them their name. In December 2019, an outbreak of unexplained pneumonia (later called coronavirus disease 2019, COVID-19) broke out in Wuhan, China (Hui et al., 2020; Li et al., 2020; Phelan et al., 2020).
A profound impact of COVID-19 on global tourism has been felt, resulting in international governments strategizing measures to manage the spread of coronavirus (Tseane-Gumbi et al., 2020). As a result, global travel was restricted, affecting employment, income, sectoral linkages, and foreign investment in the tourism industry (Rutayisirea et al., 2020; Ozili, 2020). Since efforts were implemented to stop the spread of SARS-CoV-2, many economic activities have halted. Since WWII, the COVID-19 epidemic has been the most serious worldwide crisis (Vaníček et al., 2021). Muljadi (2018) stated that tourism is the entire activity of various interconnected phenomena generated by travel. The notion of multidimensional and multi-structural tourism involves different views, organizations, mindsets and all human activities in the economic, cultural, and social fields that are productive and commercial (Isdarmanto & Kiswantoro, 2021).
Due to travel restrictions and a drop-in demand from potential visitors, the COVID-19 epidemic has significantly impacted the tourism business (Volkmann et al., 2021). Furthermore, the spread of COVID-19 has significantly hit travel businesses because many states have instituted travel constraints to keep the distance under control, which leads to a stop of a whole sector (Brouder, 2020; Gössling, Scott, & Hall, 2021). Tourism transformation can only be genuinely realized; according to Brouder (2020), the core concepts, particularly path dependence/creation and institutional inertia/innovation, provide path variables for the development of travel and tourism under the influence of the new crown virus. However, Brouder added that it remains to be seen whether the current institutional innovation will result in fundamental changes in the tourism industry. COVID-19 offers a chance to change the tourist sector to make it more sustainable and inclusive and cater to various tourism stakeholders. Still, human prosperity demands a more specific set of techniques to quantify the impact of tourism on local communities, according to Cheer (2020). As a result, given that the chances of recovering from COVID-19 are roughly the same, Gössling, Scott and Hall (2021) urged destination governments and stakeholders to exercise caution. The study’s empirical component revealed that cultural heritage plays an important role in regenerating and developing local and regional areas.
Contrary to expectations, the findings revealed a significant relationship between cultural heritage and socio-economic development to establish regional and local economies. The study supported cultural heritage in local economic development projects consistent with previous research. The findings can be used to improve cultural heritage sites and tourist destinations. Before investing in cultural heritage sites, more research is needed to achieve socio-economic development (Gössling, Scott, & Hall, 2021).
2.2. Cultural Heritage Tourism
Heritage tourism and its different forms are one of the most important forms of cultural tourism nowadays, as quoted: “Thanks to a global, integrated approach in which nature meets culture, the past meets the present, the monumental and movable heritage meets the intangible, the protection of cultural heritage, as an expression of living culture, contributes to the development of societies and the building of peace. Under its diverse origins and the various influences that have shaped it throughout history, cultural heritage takes different tangible and intangible forms, all of which are invaluable for cultural diversity as the wellspring of wealth and creativity.” (UNESCO, 2019).
The National Trust for Historic Preservation’s Heritage Tourism Program (UNESCO, 2019) stressed that heritage tourism is an integral part of cultural tourism based on experiencing the places and activities that authentically represent historical, cultural, and natural resources of a given area of the region. Timothy and Nyaupane (2009) express a similar definition by classifying the heritage into tangible immovable resources (e.g., buildings, rivers, natural areas); tangible movable resources (e.g., objects in museums, documents in archives); or intangibles such as values, customs, ceremonies, lifestyles, and including experiences such as festivals, arts, and cultural events.
2.3. Place Attachment Principle and Heritage Attachment
Place attachment is a combination of local theory (geography) and attachment theory (psychology), as proposed by Tuan (1975) and regarded the emotional connection between people and places or the environment as topophilia. Hwang et al. (2005) defined place attachment as the individual’s sense of belonging to a particular site.
Place attachment was investigated by scholars in leisure travel in the early 1990s, with Su and Wall (2014) introducing this concept in China’s tourism field using the term “place dependence.” Researchers have begun to define place attachment as the connection between people and places based on emotion, cognition, and behavior, as evidenced by Kyle, Mowen, and Tarrant (2004). The authors investigated the effects of place identity and place dependence on tourist attitudes and service expenditures and discovered that place identity has a more significant impact than place dependence. In addition, Halpenny (2010) discovered that park visitors’ place attachment is positively related to their behavioral intention to protect the environment.
Other researchers have found that place attachment can directly affect tourists’ revisit intention (Yu et al., 2019) or indirectly affect tourists’ revisit intention through satisfaction (Zhu et al., 2015). Moreover, place attachment mediates the relationship between revisit intention and other factors (Prayag & Ryan, 2012). As a result, the emotional connection between people and destinations in the tourist experience is defined as place attachment in this study.
Heritage attachment anchors its dimensions in the place attachment principle that connects emotion between people and places or the environment. It was expounded to confine in a cultural heritage setting and terms “Heritage Attachment,” which is defined as an individual’s accumulated social and physical experiences in a specific place or environment (Stylidis, 2017). Cultural heritage has high cultural, economic, artistic, and educational value, to name a few (Tang et al., 2019). It possesses authenticity, vividness, inheritance, and nationality (Alazaizeha et al., 2016). Cultural heritage is regarded as the carrier of artistic genes and national memories, vital in promoting diversity and the long-term development of human culture (Tan et al., 2018). Tourism is a positive force for heritage preservation because of its ability to draw international attention to the area and generate revenue for heritage conservation.
According to Park (2014), this point is of paramount importance because tourism serves as a major economic resource for conserving the past. However, if not properly managed, the growing popularity of heritage tourism can damage the long-term sustainability of heritage sites and places. Therefore, careful consideration in preserving a sense of place and maximizing economic potential is critical to the successful management of heritage tourism, as failure to address the flux of tourists frequently jeopardizes heritage sites (Park, 2014).
Heritage sites are physical reminders of the past, present, and future. In an ideal world, cultural heritage tourism would bring economic benefits to host communities while also providing an effective means and motivation for them to manage their cultural heritage and continuing traditions (Crossman, 2018). Moreover, the tourist preference dimension is about the frequency of visits, the physical place, culture, activities, environment, and infrastructure attractiveness since it will affect tourists’ decision to choose their destination and the tendency to revisit the site.
2.4. Theory of Planned Behavior
The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) by Ajzen (2019) was rooted in the original concept of the Theory of Reasoned Actions (TRA). TRA originally proposed that consumers’ behavioral intentions can be predicted through attitude and subjective norms. However, Ajzen (2019) suggested that perceived behavioral control is another factor aside from attitude and subjective norms. Therefore, it can better understand how consumers lead their behavioral intentions and behavior in using a particular product or service.
Several factors influence travel decision-making, which is a complex process (García-Fernández et al., 2018), including psychological (attitude) factors, social (subjective norm) factors, and perceived behavioral control (Bianchi et al., 2017). According to this theory, human behavior is driven by an individual’s or repeated intentions (Abbasi et al., 2020). The willingness or readiness of an individual to return to the exact location is referred to as revisit intention (Tosun et al., 2015). Prominent constructs in the TPB are as follows:
Attitude. The definition of attitude toward behavior connotes an impression that a person has a positive or negative assessment of the tested behavior. The more positive the attitude, the more a person will likely engage in a specific behavior. If there is a positive evaluation of the experience being tested, the consumer tends to possess a more constructive attitude (Ajzen, 2019; Han & Kim, 2010).
Subjective Norm. As the sensed social force to act or not work (Ajzen, 2019), the subjective norm is how the individual’s people will affect the user’s decision. For example, if the user believes the essential people surrounding him, he will likely approve or reject the behavior he intends to perform (Chow et al., 2019a).
Perceived Behavioral Control. The perceived ease or complexity in executing a behavior refers to perceived behavioral control (PBC) (Ajzen, 2019). Furthermore, the user with more substantial control has a stronger intention to execute a particular behavior being tested.
Revisit Intention. Revisit intention can be extended to “consumer repurchase” in marketing. Hu et al. (2020) defined revisit intention as the possibility of tourists returning to specific destinations to participate in tourism activities. The purpose of tourists to return to a destination is defined as revisit intention (Chow et al., 2019b). According to Hazif and Mohamad (2017), the marketing cost required to attract a repeat visitor is one-fifth of that needed to attract a new visitor. Paolinelli (2021) emphasized the importance of tourist revisiting in increasing the market share of mature tourist destinations, discovering that attracting returning tourists is easier and more effective than attracting new tourists. As a result, revisit intention has become a hot topic in tourism research, with some scholars predicting the number of repeat visitors based on review intention.
There is no doubt that, in the context of travel and tourism-related literature, a significant number of scholarly attention has been dedicated to determining the tourists’ revisit intention, especially in the past ten years (An et al., 2019; Seetanah et al., 2018). This is because revisit intention in tourism is significant for businesses’ growth and survival (Ngoc & Trinh, 2015). According to Yao et al. (2020), analyzing the impact on tourist revisit intention from the “sentimental” relationship of place attachment, which is a relationship between people and place, is more practical. Furthermore, it must be judged rationally; the perceived value results from tourists rationally calculating the value of their travel experience. The literature research findings link tourists’ perceived value, place attachment, and intention to return. The tourists from attachment to places are based on their perceived value. Therefore, specific travel situations should be considered in studies on revisit intention. This study examines how the effect of tourist revisit purpose emerges in the context of intangible cultural heritage—Mazu belief tourism.
2.5. Hypotheses Development
This study applies the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) as its theoretical underpinning and extends the analysis by including the constructs of heritage attachment and revisit intention. The TPB predicts the relationship between the intentions and the behaviors of users of products in various fields. It is a valuable model to understand the effects of pro-environmental behaviors (Bamberg & Schimdt, 2003) in hospitality and restaurant services (Chen & Tung, 2014; Han, 2015; Kim & Hwang, 2020), products that are efficient in energy use (Ha & Janda, 2012), green and organic products (Karamehmedović, 2018; Noor’ain et al., 2018; Zagata, 2012).
Heritage attachment as affective motivation in a place (destination) gives meaning to connecting the sense of place and heritage site. The motivational attachment and the tourist preferences for cultural heritage destinations are impossible to create again. The emotion of tourists fuels their motivation to travel, which is related to their psychological needs. It will determine whether or not a visit is successful and how their overall experience influences their future travel plans. In addition, it has a distinct culture or a significant physical structure concerning the heritage site. When tourists have strong personal attachments to a heritage site, they will return, ensuring vibrant and sustainable tourism (Liu, Li, & Kim, 2017). The term “sense of place” refers to a single person’s emotional attachment to a specific location based on our previous experiences with its social, economic, and cultural aspects (Jorgensen & Stedman, 2006; Kyle, Mowen, & Tarrant, 2004).
Furthermore, place identity, attachment, and dependence (McCunn & Gifford, 2014) are linked to people’s attitudes, experiences, and perceptions of a specific site. Tan et al. (2018) define a sense of place as an attachment that connects people to meaningful places. Previous research has also found a link between place attachment and tourist satisfaction with a location. Yu et al. (2019) demonstrated that place identity and place directly impacts tourists’ satisfaction with an area. Tourists’ place dependence and place identity, as sub-constructs of place attachment, were positively and indirectly related to interpretation satisfaction in Hwang et al. (2005)’s study of Taiwanese national parks. Moreover, Prayag and Ryan (2012) discovered a positive relationship between place attachment (with place dependence and place identity as sub-dimensions) and tourist satisfaction. However, as a critical component of place attachment, place social bonding and its effects on place satisfaction have received little attention in the literature (Ramkissoon, Weiler, & Smith, 2012).
On the other hand, Timothy and Nyaupane (2009) state that people go to heritage sites to learn more, satisfy their curiosity and nostalgia, grow spiritually, relax, and get away from it. As a result, marketers must comprehend the motivators that drive travel decisions and consumption behaviors (Sirisack et al., 2014). Therefore, understanding tourist motivations is essential for tourism management and academic research (Phosikham et al., 2015 cited in Quiñones Vilá, 2018). Some empirical studies have also shed light on the link between the heritage attachment of tourists visiting historical sites. As a result, scholars have become interested in exploring the attachments that people form with places (Gross & Brown, 2008; Hazif & Mohamad, 2017; Prayag & Ryan, 2012; Ramkissoon et al., 2012; Song et al., 2017). In their conceptual study, Ramkissoon et al. (2012) argued that people’s affective connection with a place generates a sense of psychological well-being and fosters repeat visits. Gross and Brown (2008) argue that people relate the value and meaning of sites to their experience, which affects their decision to visit them. Yankholmes and McKercher (2015) argue that individuals prefer to visit sites that commemorate past human events like slave routes.
Previous studies have suggested that residents’ place satisfaction is essential for their behavioral intentions (Qiu et al., 2019). However, no studies have been conducted in cultural heritage-based settings to examine the influences of heritage attachment on the revisit intention of tourists. Lee and Oh (2018) conducted a conjoint analysis of consumer preference for destination brand attributes in Shandong Province, China. The survey collected demographic information, including geographic area, age, marital status, income, ethnic group, gender, and education level.
In highlighting the summary of the relevant literature and studies, Sing’ambi and Lwoga (2018) have a joint research perspective in the present study investigating the heritage attachment domains of the 160 domestic tourists visiting historic sites in Bagamoyo, Tanzania. The previous research found a positive and significant relationship between heritage attachment and domestic tourists’ visits to landmark sites using multiple regression analysis. Furthermore, the finding revealed that the more an individual is attached to historical sites, the more likely they will visit them. Relative to tourist behavior in tourism research, the study of Joo et al. (2020) focuses on investigating the essential factors that affect the potential behavior of rural tourism tourists using the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Furthermore, the research utilized partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM).
The study’s findings revealed that tourists were influenced by subjective nom and perceived behavior control. The effect of the subjective norm was more significant. Furthermore, it showed that consumers’ social networking services played a notable role in contributing to the strength of the relationship between the intention to visit and subjective norms. Therefore, the theory of planned behavior is utilized as the primary construct in determining the factors that influence revisit intention in cultural heritage destinations in Iloilo. However, it differs from the previous study by extending the TPB constructs by incorporating the heritage attachment dimensions. Therefore, in line with the above arguments, the author formulated the following hypotheses:
H1. Tourist behavior varies across the current condition of cultural heritage destinations.
H2. Heritage attachment varies across the current condition of cultural heritage destinations.
H3. Heritage attachment significantly influences tourist behavior.
H4. Heritage attachment has a significant relationship with tourist behavior.
2.6. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework is anchored on the two existing theoretical models of heritage attachment and tourist behavior comprised of the classical Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) by Ajzen (2019) and the conventional attachment theory of Ainsworth and Bowlby (1991). Scholars of cultural heritage management have discovered that historic sites are embedded with assets people have an affective passion for, a concept called heritage attachment (Cheung & Hui, 2018; Hwang et al., 2020). The TPB was used in different disciplines (Han & Stoel, 2017; Yuriev et al., 2020). Aside from the field of psychology, the theory predicted behavioral intentions in many areas, including business and commerce (Han & Hyun, 2017; Kureshi & Thomas, 2019), education (Arranz et al., 2017), agriculture (Maleksaeedi et al., 2019), products or services (Cheng et al., 2018) and medicine (Hossain et al., 2020; Hu et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020). At present, these classical theories are still frequently used in different disciplines. The TPB is a widely used theory in tourism research to explain travelers’ decision-making processes and behaviors (Kim & Hwang, 2020; Wu et al., 2017; Song et al., 2017). The critical aspect of the decisions and behaviors comprises tourism destination choices (Eom & Han, 2019; Wu et al., 2017). Thus, TPB utilization is often considered efficient in a wide range of destination selection processes and behaviors in tourism (Guggenhein et al., 2020; Han, 2015; Song et al., 2017). TPB has been tested and demonstrated in extant tourism and consumer behavior (Hwang et al., 2020; Kim & Hwang, 2020; Wu et al., 2017). Moreover, the Theory of Planned Behavior by Ajzen and Kruglanski (2019) confined to the tourist behavior in this study comprises attitude toward the behavior that is undoubtedly a salient determinant of travelers’ intentions/decisions (Kim & Hwang, 2020; Guggenhein et al., 2020; Han & Hyun, 2017). Furthermore, the subjective norm is another critical predictor of travelers’ behavioral intention (Wu et al., 2017; Song et al., 2017). Perceived behavioral control is also a crucial determinant of the traveler’s intention (Kim & Hwang, 2020).
Similarly, another significant theory is the attachment theory. The theory describes the nature of humans’ attachment to objects or places (Maleksaeedi et al., 2019). Bowlby and Ainsworth developed the theory in 1991 to clarify child development and personality development by demonstrating that an infant forms an affective bond with an attachment figure such as the mother, which gives physical and psychological safety, security, and comfort, as well as an intellectual depiction of the self and the others. On the other hand, the umbrella theory of several attachment principles addresses the bond between place and people. Place attachment is an emotional relationship with a location and the behavior that emerges from that bond. Experience, participation, and satisfaction are the significant factors of place attachment (Buonincontri et al., 2017; Chen, 2018; Ramkissoon & Mavondo, 2017). After place attachment is created, individual perceptions and subsequent behaviors toward the place, such as contentment, loyalty, attitude, and pro-environmental activity, will be influenced (Su & Qian, 2012). Different terms, definitions, and methodologies have been used to measure people’s feelings about the place within various research developments. For example, Sing’ambi and Lwoga (2018) coined the development of heritage attachment in their study of historic sites in Nigeria. More importantly, the study’s conceptual framework likewise explores the significant contribution of evaluating the current condition of the cultural heritage destination in Iloilo and the impact of COVID-19 on tourist travel. The framework of the study finally attempts to develop a strategic policy model as a significant role of this study to the body of tourism research.
Moreover, the heritage attachment dimension focuses on the most dominant ideas of heritage motivation, and heritage preferences are more affective in approach. Therefore, the factors influencing tourists visiting cultural heritage destinations in Iloilo are embodied in the heritage attachment construct to determine the significant direct relationship on tourist behavior. However, empirical evidence to confirm the nature of this relationship is still limited, particularly when considering domestic tourists in the Philippine context and the effects of each dimension of attachment. Based on the justifications and evidence highlighted, the conceptual model is presented in Figure 1.
3. Methodology
The study used a descriptive-correlational research design employing a purely quantitative approach. According to Creswell (2012), quantitative research is used when the research problem explains why something occurs. Moreover, a predictive-causal relationship was utilized using Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), applying the cause and effect and measuring the hypothesized relationships among the study constructs.
The respondents of the study were only domestic or local tourists who visited CHDs. In determining the sample size, the researcher used G*Power using an effect size of 0.15 with a margin of error of 0.05 and yielded a total sample size required with a minimum of 184. The author disseminated 305 surveys using the non-probability convenience sampling approach. The 305-sample size used in the study is sufficient to accept the effects of the structural model. Due to the
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Figure 1. Conceptual framework (author).
probability of a significant non-response rate in survey research, a much bigger sample size was chosen. However, only 292 were retrieved as valid and complete, equivalent to a 96.0% retrieval rate. Data collection utilized the survey method by distributing an online questionnaire on various online platforms such as emails and social media. In addition, the author distributed some personally during data gathering in Iloilo. The author ensured tourists’ affirmative consent by voluntarily agreeing to the data collection procedure as an ethical practice. Informed consent and data privacy disclosure were provided in the Google form. The researcher prioritized the anonymity of the respondents, and no monetary or in-kind benefits were given in exchange for the data collection. Criteria for selecting respondents were those local tourists 18 years of age and above and those who visited the cultural heritage destination in Iloilo regardless of their regional or provincial location in the Philippines, gender, occupations, income bracket, etc. Table 1 presents the demographic profile of the respondents.
Age. Most tourists who visited the cultural heritage sites, places, and attractions were 18 - 28 years old, with 200 respondents with 68.5%, followed by those ages ranging from 29 - 39 years old or equivalent 18.2% with 53 respondents. The result depicts that generation Y, the digital generation, and generation Z or the millennials dominated the tourist influx among generational cohorts during the pandemic. Though there were other age ranges, these were just a few compared to Gen Y and Gen Z. The pandemic causes reluctance among older tourists. On the other hand, these generational cohorts were more adventurous explorers, primarily upon opening the heritage sites during the travel bubbles and easing out of quarantine statuses. Furthermore, the results show that respondents are students exploring cultural heritage tourism as their learning experiences relative to the tourism management courses.
Sex. Tourist respondents were mostly female, equivalent to 65.80% or 192, compared to males with only 100 or 34.20%. The finding implies that most of the ones who visited the places were female during the initial actual distribution of the questionnaire. However, in the online distribution of the questionnaire thru the Google form, male respondents responded well; thus, the almost balance responses from the sex classes were realized.
Civil Status. Single individuals constitute 80.8% of respondents, with 236. The result implies that the majority are still young, logically within the age range. Most are students and traveling as independent travelers.
Monthly Income. Since most of the respondents were single and young adults, tourist respondents mainly were within the Php20,000 below monthly income level, with 67.5% or equivalent to 197 respondents. Upon soliciting information during the questionnaire distribution, the researcher had time for a few questions with them. It came across respondents who were graduates of master’s degrees and currently employed, thus having their income. Most of these working people are college graduates. These pools of respondents tend to explore and discover something new.
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Table 1. Socio-demographic profile of respondents (N-292).
Occupation. Respondents were generally students, with 53.4% or 156; the rest were part of the academe, government employees, etc. Upon asking some of the respondents during the distribution of the survey questionnaire, there was a time when tourists kept returning to the place as a stress reliever, reminiscing and observing the various changes in the destination. One of the respondents mentioned that before the pandemic, all these sites, places, and attractions were visited by local and foreign tourists. Education tops the list of travel intention among domestic tourist respondents but with balance participation for those with leisure, business travel with leisure, and visiting family and relatives. The pandemic enjoyed many advantages among the local tourists bonding moments with their families. Hanusch (2013), for example, claims that students travel more frequently than employed people and do it primarily for educational and research objectives. On the other hand, employed people spend their leisure time with their families.
Data Collection
A structured survey questionnaire containing demographic profiling, the current condition of cultural heritage destinations, the impact of COVID-19 on tourists’ travels, heritage attachment, and tourist behavior constructs, respectively, were employed.
The heritage attachment comprised motivations and preferences anchored in Ramkissoon & Mavondo (2017) and Sing’ambi and Lwoga (2018) with modifications. Furthermore, the researcher equally modified the indicators from the planned behavior theory by Ajzen (2019) and applied other indicators that were found appropriate in the study. The attitude in the TPB was adapted from Jaiswal and Kant (2018); the subjective norms were from Ajzen (2019) and Han (2015), and the perceived behavioral control was also adapted from Ajzen (2019) and Han (2015). The researcher customized the indicators into the cultural heritage tourism elements and reframed the items accordingly. Relative to the current condition construct, the researcher made a self-made questionnaire as part of an assessment tool of the conditional factors of cultural heritage destinations, including the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourist travel as an additional parameter.
The survey instrument used a five-point Likert scale to indicate their level of agreement with the statements. To determine the trend of the composite ratings, weighted averages were produced for the Likert scales, ranging from Strongly Agree = 5 to Strongly Disagree = 1. The usage of the mean range was adapted in international research (IS research), where the differences of each score were equally and proportionately distributed in measuring the strength of opinion. The outcomes can reveal how powerful (or ineffective) each component is (Alfarra, 2009).
The instrument underwent face and content validity and reliability test through traditional validation among tourism and experts and conducted pilot testing among 31 non-participating tourist-respondents with 75 questions. The capacity to assess the consistency of results and the extent to which the questionnaire is free of random mistakes is determined by reliability (Cho & Kim, 2015). One of the most common reliability tests used in the study was Cronbach’s coefficient alpha. The test value yielded 0.978755923 exceeded the acceptable value of 0.70, which was a reasonable goal.
The data were treated using frequency counts and percentages for the demographics, weighted mean rating standard deviation for the current condition and impact of COVID-19 on tourists’ travels, the constructs of heritage attachments, attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and revisit intention. The data were subjected to the Pearson chi-square test via Phi and Cramer’s V to determine the associations between heritage attachment and tourist behavior in the current condition of CHD. Phi and Cramer’s V are used for a nominal association, meaning they are utilized when the data are nominal (Akoglu, 2018; Prematunga, 2012). Regression Analysis to estimate the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. In formulating a statistical model, partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was used, acknowledging Kline (2010) and Hair Jr. et al. (2017) proved that PLS-SEM is a strong statistical technique in testing a theoretical framework for social sciences studies. Furthermore, the coefficient of determination (R2) gauges the proportion of the endogenous construct elucidated by an exogenous construct or constructs of the structural model. It indicates how closely the data matches the model (the goodness of fit). This statistical tool can be interpreted using Cohen (1988). R2 values can be interpreted as: 0.26 (substantial), 0.13 (moderate), and 0.02 (weak).
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Current Conditions of the Cultural Heritage Destinations (Conditional Factors)
Table 2 presents the summary of mean ratings on the current condition of the cultural heritage destinations in Iloilo. Each of the dimensions depicts a positive rating that shows the richness of the province in terms of culture, heritage, and history. The overall mean score of 4.46 (sd.72), interpreted as a “strongly agree” rating, attests to the strengths of Iloilo of the tourism resources, products, and people as hidden gems in the heart of the Philippines.
The study findings imply that the cultural and heritage attractions are significant for the tourism sectors in Iloilo because many visitors visit these heritage and cultural places in the province. Moreover, tourists’ purposes for traveling to diverse locations are similar in meeting the needs of varying tourist markets, such as education, research, recreation, and communing with the past. Therefore, understanding the importance of interpreting the tourists’ experience can be crucial for developing cultural heritage destinations in Iloilo. For instance, when people think about Iloilo, they typically think of dishes like La Paz Batchoy, Pansit Molo, Butterscotch, and the yearly Dinagyang Festival. However,
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Table 2. Summary of mean scores in the current conditions of CHDs.
it is more than simply cuisine and celebrations. The study reveals that heritage and cultural places, sites, and attractions play vital roles in upholding the province’s culture, tradition, long history, ethical norms, and attributes. These attributes make the functions of cultural heritage destinations much more significant to people and the tourists-visitors worldwide. This finding supports the claim of Enright and Newton (2004) (cited by Khan et al., 2021) that tourism policy and destination management reflect qualities of destination competitiveness in terms of expertise, knowledge, and information relevant to tourism stakeholders’ concerns appropriately. Furthermore, local communities’ engagement in tourism contributes to long-term development (Cucculelli & Goffi, 2016). Therefore, from this perspective, sustainable tourism policy, planning, and management are not outcomes but vehicles for Sustainable Tourism Development (STD). Hence, sustainable tourism cannot be attained without appropriate policies and governance (Goffi & Cuccuelli, 2018).
Moreover, the COVID-19 crisis is a turning point in the battle to keep the tourism industry back on its feet. Findings revealed that there are more negative than positive effects during a pandemic. Tourists consider changing priorities on health and safety instead of traveling even if they want to. Tourist behavior changes significantly. For example, travel anxiety about tourists’ self-anxiety about travel increases. This finding is emphasized by Wachyuni and Kusumaningrum (2020), that anxiety increases and tourists’ perception of safety and intention to travel will decrease. Travel intentions are determined by the level of travel anxiety and the perceived level of security (Reisinger & Mavondo, 2005). This finding is supported by Gössling et al. (2021), that the COVID-19 worldwide spread is causing a global crisis for hospitality and tourism and is dramatically changing consumers’ wants and market demands satisfied by existing tourism value chains and business models during the pre-COVID-19 era. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the tourism industry has indeed affected more than the other types of business and services, even though tourism is one of the most significant contributors to any country’s GDP. Gossling added that the affected jobs and activities could be categorized as international and domestic tourism and day visits. The segments include air transport, cruises, public transport, hoteling and accommodation, shopping and survivors, cafes and restaurants, conventions, festivals, meetings, and sports events (Gössling et al., 2021). Villacé-Molinero et al. (2021), Patwardhan et al. (2020) and Collins & Millar (2021) highlighted that in order to attract fully-vaccinated visitors looking for trustworthy and safer travel choices, destination assurances for COVID-19 safety are now required.
4.2. Heritage Attachment
Since the study was done during the pandemic and international tourists are restricted, the findings rely on the responses of domestic or local tourists. Most researchers focus on international tourists, particularly their place attachment to a destination. On the other hand, the author believes it should be supplemented with domestic tourism since it is susceptible to internal and external surroundings to achieve successful and sustainable tourist growth. Even though domestic tourism accounts for most of the tourism, it is ignored and eclipsed by foreign tourism in terms of research and tourism policies. Therefore, the critical component in this section is about the heritage attachment of domestic tourists to the cultural heritage destinations in the province of Iloilo in terms of motivation and preference dimensions, as shown in Table 3 presents the mean ratings of the Heritage Attachment Constructs overall. The results unveiled an overall mean score of 4.46 (sd-0.70) and were interpreted as “strongly agree.” The constructs of motivation and preferences are now in place in attachment theory. Tourism research has widely addressed the significance and effect of place attachment originating from attachment theory and expounded in this study focusing on cultural heritage destinations. Among the attachment dimensions, affective attachment and social bonding were the concentration of this study. The idea is the bond between the destination and people (tourists).
Motivations and preferences as vital components of heritage attachment reveal the emotional attachment of tourists to cultural heritage destinations. These two constructs deliver a feeling of tourists toward a place and relate to the social relations a specific place enhances. In tourism, place attachment is also often described as “destination attachment” (Chen et al., 2017); and is linked to visitors’ loyalty to places (Yuksel et al., 2010); tourists’ behavioral intentions (Loureiro, 2014). Motivations are one of the markers of tourist behavior, and they impact tourists’ preferences in one or more ways, necessitating the need to study travel
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Table 3. Summary of mean scores of the heritage attachment constructs.
motivations. Bayih and Sing (2020) underscored that research on travel motivation has concluded that knowing travelers’ reasons is critical to tourism development. Furthermore, scholars such as Pearce and Lee (2005) and Um & Crompton (1990) agreed that tourists’ visit patterns result from a destination-choosing process heavily impacted by visitors’ motives, backgrounds, and preferences. In addition, the heritage attachment to the preferences of tourists provides a continuing interest in the hopes of what was recently coined “Revenge Tourism.” This is a travel mindset that pertains to tourists who are now more excited to travel and are less willing to postpone their travel plans post-pandemic (Whitmore, 2021).
However, few studies on domestic tourism and the links between motives, preferences and behavioral intentions have been done. Although some writers describe a sense of place as an umbrella word for all notions that characterize the relationship between place and people (Jorgensen & Stedman, 2006), place attachment was utilized as an umbrella concept for a sense of place dependency and place identity in this study. Heritage attachment is vital to know how people (tourists) value and use the knowledge of architectural and historical heritage in their experiences. In cultural heritage places, authenticity has been examined as a distinctive motive of visitors (Cho, 2012; Ramires et al., 2018; Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2011; Zhou et al., 2013).
Overall, heritage attachment in tourism research corroborates that a traveler’s relationship with a destination is better understood if they have a place attachment. People are more likely to be satisfied with their surroundings and intend to return to the destination and get attached to them. Since research on heritage attachment focusing on cultural heritage destinations during pandemics remains scarce, this study underlines the need for this research on travel motivation, preferences and support behavior in the Philippine setting, particularly in the Province of Iloilo beyond other tourism niches.
4.3. Tourists’ Behavior
The findings presented in Table 4 revealed that the respondents favorably rated all five (5) items of attitude (Mean = 4.38; sd = 0.76), five (5) items of subjective norms (Mean = 4.46; sd = 0.69), five (5) items of perceived behavioral control (Mean = 4.33; sd = 0.79), and five (5) items of revisit intention (Mean = 4.46; sd = 0.70). The strong overall perceptions (as manifested with the interpretation of strongly agree) in all dimensions signify that tourists of Iloilo have a positive outlook towards visiting the province’s cultural heritage attractions.
Since the study confines only domestic tourists as the primary respondents, local tourists form strong relationships with their surroundings. This connection is a must-have. Revisit intention has become a prevalent issue in tourism research, with some researchers utilizing it to forecast the number of return tourists. For instance, Baker and Crompton (2000) claimed that tourists are more inclined to review a place if they strongly desire to return. TPB is a model that
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Table 4. Summary of mean scores in the level of tourists’ behavior.
uses several psychological components (attitudes, subjective norms, control perceptions, and intents) to predict and interpret behavior across different domains. The social and physical settings are linked to their experiences, allowing them to connect to their past and influence their future behavior that affects emotion and feeling, which are all essential parts of the idea of heritage attachment, and one of its fundamental qualities. As a result of demographic profiling, most of the respondents are millennials. The millennial generation, which has different goals and demands than prior generations, is the target market for today’s tourism promotion. Millennials enjoy the experience, are in the high claim and have improved lifestyle worth (if value relates to the presence on social media) and obsessive spending habits.
Changes in market demand result in a shift in the value of historical destinations. This finding corroborates the study of Edge Research (2017) that real experiences that allow them to learn about local cultures, history, and traditions are preferred by millennial visitors. Furthermore, Bayih and Singh (2020), tourism in general and determinants of visitor behavioral intentions are not new to research. However, academics’ interest in international tourism has exceeded domestic tourism. As a result, most developing nations worldwide lack statistics, analysis, regulations, and plans for domestic tourism (Ghimire, 2001). Furthermore, tourism marketing and marketing management studies thoroughly examined the complex interrelationships between domestic tourist motives, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions. This gap makes it difficult for policymakers to design effective tourist management, marketing, and sustainable development policies and strategies.
4.4. Tourist Behavior Varies Across the Current Conditions of CHDs
To gauge how tourist behavior (attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and revisit intention) varies across the current condition of cultural heritage (places, sites & attractions, accessibility, tourism policies, facilities & infrastructure, safety & security, and impact of COVID-19 on tourists’ travel), Pearson chi-square test via Phi and Cramer’s V was utilized. Phi and Cramer’s V are used for a nominal association, meaning they are used when the data are nominal (Akoglu, 2018; Prematunga, 2012). As evident with the type of data collected for tourist behavior and the current condition of cultural heritage destinations, data are nominal (not categorical). Hence Pearson chi-square test via Phi and Cramer’s V is much more appropriate.
Table 5 presents the association between tourist behavior and cultural heritage’s current condition. The findings showed that all dimensions of tourist behavior (attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and revisit intention)
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Table 5. Test of association between tourist behavior and current conditions of CHDs.
are associated with all the dimensions of the current condition of cultural heritage (places, sites & attractions, accessibility, tourism policies, facilities & infrastructure, safety & security, and impact of COVID-19 on tourists’ travel). The results indicate that tourist behavior dimensions are related to the dimensions of the current condition of cultural heritage destinations. Cramer’s V varies between 0 and 1 without any negative values, and the table below shows a value more significant than 0.25, interpreted as a solid association.
Phi and Cramer’s V defines a perfect association of the independent and independent variables in which all variable levels have the most impact and indicate independence. Consequently, the results measure the association that doesn’t have the same properties but was used where both variables are nominal. The association means that no assumption is made on which variable is independent and dependent, which is different on the test of a relationship, which implies such a distinction. Thus, “association” and “relationship” would not be interchangeable under these circumstances.
4.5. Heritage Attachment Varies Across the Current Conditions of CHDs
Similarly, the Pearson chi-square test via Phi and Cramer’s V was performed to measure how heritage attachment (motivation and preference) varies across the current condition of cultural heritage (places, sites & attractions, accessibility, tourism policies, facilities & infrastructure, safety & security, and impact of COVID-19 on tourists’ travel). Since the data collected were nominal; therefore, Phi and Cramer’s V nominal association tests are appropriate (Akoglu, 2018; Prematunga, 2012).
Table 6 revealed that the two (2) dimensions of heritage attachment (motivation and preference) are associated with all the dimensions of the current condition of cultural heritage (places, sites & attractions, accessibility, tourism policies, facilities & infrastructure, safety & security, and impact of COVID-19 on tourists’ travel). The results indicate that heritage attachment dimensions are related to the dimensions of the current condition of cultural heritage destinations.
Cramer’s V varies between 0 and 1 without any negative values, and the table above shows a value more significant than 0.25, interpreted as a solid association.
Similarly, the V of Phi and Cramer specifies a perfect relationship between the independent and dependent variables. All variables have the most significant influence and demonstrate independence simultaneously. Consequently, the results are based on associations that do not have the same characteristics but were employed when both variables were nominal. However, with the tourist behavior and heritage attachment constructs relating it to the current condition, the heritage attachment (motivation and preferences) has a high value of dependence, thus proving that heritage attachment gives value to a tourist to choose or visit a destination with resilient conditional factors in a goal resulting to a tourist clear behavioral intention. Little research has focused on testing the association of
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Table 6. Test of association between heritage attachment and the current conditions of CHDs.
heritage attachment and the dependent factors in cultural heritage destinations. Thus, a significant contribution of this study to the scientific body of knowledge is established and explained. Despite being a complicated part of the tourist business, the findings show that cultural heritage tourism is diversified and adaptable. With time, the future positions of this tourist niche will most likely be enhanced both directly and indirectly, particularly in understanding the rapidly developing cultural values. Csapo (2012) highlighted that “By its multifarious origins and the various influences that have shaped it throughout history, cultural heritage takes different tangible and intangible forms, all of which are invaluable for cultural diversity as the wellspring of wealth and creativity.”
4.6. Influence of Heritage Attachment on Tourist Behavior
A linear regression test was performed to measure how the respondents’ heritage motivation and preference (heritage attachment) explain tourist behavior (attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and revisit intention) shown in Table 7.
The results revealed that heritage motivation (β = 0.444; p < 0.001) and preference (β = 0.454; p < 0.001) predict overall tourist behavior. The findings indicate that increased heritage attachment (heritage motivation and preference) leads to favorable tourist behavior. The R2 signifies that heritage motivation and preference can explain 74% of the variability of overall tourist behavior. Thus, the overall regression results supported the hypothesis that heritage attachment significantly influences tourist behavior in the cultural heritage destinations in Iloilo.
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Table 7. Heritage attachment as predictors of tourist behavior (overall).
*p < 0.001; dependent variable = overall tourist behavior.
The finding suggests that tourist perception of heritage attachment might not change the tourist behavior directly, but only when their attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and revisit intention change. The results indicate that heritage or place attachment theory could be expanded to tourism motivation, satisfaction and support behavior in future research. It is translated from the result that tourists (domestic) are mainly motivated and prefer to visit cultural heritage destinations if they receive proper facilities, for instance, value for money. Another crucial factor is the availability of basic amenities such as food, hotel, sightseeing, and a reasonable price. The result confirmed the previous research on TPB, a strong predictor for measuring various social behaviors since its development (Ajzen, 1991; Alam & Sayuti, 2011). However, Lam and Hsu (2004) suggest that TPB’s predictive value might be improved by combining it with other constructs. Hence, this study used new constructs of heritage attachment (motivations and preference) and found them similarly supported. Since the overall results on heritage are favorably high in all indicators, it has significantly affected tourists’ behavior (TPB). TPB postulates that behavioral intention results from attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 2005). This theory predicts a person’s behavioral preferences and actual behaviors. All of the main variables and hypotheses formulated in this study were positively significant, thus supporting this research’s theoretical foundation.
4.7. Structural Model
The structural model’s development attempts to prove the structural relationship between heritage attachment (HA) and tourist behavior (TB). To measure how heritage attachment (motivation and preference) predicts tourist behavior (attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and revisit intention), partial least squares—structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was utilized. Heritage motivation has 15 underlying indicators, preference (5), attitude (5), subjective norms (5), perceived behavioral control (5) and revisit intention (5). PLS-SEM was used to test the causal links of the variables by defining the model that describes their relationships (variables) in the study’s hypothesis, identifying the model and its parameters, and evaluating the model’s fit. (Kock, 2020) PLS-SEM is an appropriate statistical test (Hair Jr. et al., 2017).
The coefficient of determination (R2) gauges the proportion of the endogenous construct elucidated by an exogenous construct or constructs of the structural model. The coefficient of determination indicates how closely the data matches the model (the goodness of fit). The quality of the coefficient is determined by several factors, including the variables’ units of measurement, the type of variables included in the model, and the data transformation used. Theoretically, the minimum R2 is 0. However, since it indicates the best possible fit, R2 will always be greater than zero, even when the predictor and outcome variables are unrelated. The researcher utilized Cohen (1988), wherein R2 values can be interpreted as: 0.26 (substantial), 0.13 (moderate), and 0.02 (weak) in interpreting the results.
Figure 2 presents the results of the PLS-SEM. Analysis of the data showed that heritage motivation significantly and positively predicts attitude (β = 0.49, p < 0.01), subjective norms (β = 0.42, p < 0.01), perceived behavioral control (β = 0.39, p < 0.01), and revisit intention (β = 0.37, p < 0.01). Furthermore, it was also found that heritage preference significantly and positively predicts attitude (β = 0.31, p < 0.01), subjective norms (β = 0.41, p < 0.01), perceived behavioral control (β = 0.41, p < 0.01), and revisit intention (β = 0.51, p < 0.01). As seen in the Figure, the R2 values are within the substantial levels.
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Figure 2. Structural model of heritage attachment and tourists’ behavior.
The structural model was a reconfirmation of the relationship of heritage attachment with TPB, as discussed in the regression analysis; however, the PLS-SEM concretely defined the critical measurement parameters and the functional relationships among each of the constructs of the study. The structural model was primarily developed to examine the structural relationship between heritage attachment (motivation and preference) and planned behavior (TPB) theory which includes revisiting intention constructs in determining the overall behavioral intention of choosing cultural heritage destinations. Although the TPB model has been validated with additional variables, motivation as a predictive construct and preference as a new construct in the overall heritage attachment theory, these constructs are rarely included (Lee, 2021). Therefore, the study contributed to knowledge in research to understand better how heritage attachment can influence choosing CHDs by TPB (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and revisit intention). For example, Zhang, Chen & Li (2019) found that heritage attachment with motivation is the primary construct and significantly impacts tourists’ intention to revisit Gankeng Hakka Town in China. However, the finding of this study is in contrast to the study by Li, Cai, Lehto, & Huang (2010), which discovered no significant relationship between place attachment and revisit intention.
4.8. Model Fit Assessment Result
Table 8 shows the model fit and quality indices of SEM. According to Kock (2020), the p-values of APC, ARS, and AARS must be less than or equal to 0.05. Thus, the results generated in this study are acceptable. As for AVIF and AFVIF, the indices must be less than or equal to 5 (ideally less than or equal to 3.3). Therefore, AVIF and AFVIF are within the acceptable range based on the results. The GoF result of this study was found to be large since it is greater than 0.36 (small if greater than or equal to 0.1 and medium if greater than or equal to 0.25).
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Table 8. Model fit and quality indices.
This research adds to the current body of knowledge by constructing and testing a model exploring the relationships among heritage attachment (HA), attitude (ATT), subjective norms (SN), perceived behavioral control (PBC), and revisit intention (RI) in the context of cultural heritage destinations. The COVID-19 epidemic has significantly impacted the travel and tourism business, but it’s unclear if this has influenced travelers’ perceptions of cultural heritage places and their behavior. As a result, future studies may examine this area and the relative variation explained by different dependent variables. The study concludes that tourism will not return to its pre-coronavirus state and that recovery will be sluggish.
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Figure 3. Proposed strategic policy model with its prescriptions’ components (author).
4.9. Strategic Policy Model for CHDs in the Province of Iloilo
Based on the study’s findings, the structural model reveals significant constructs in formulating a strategic policy model. The emerging structural model above (Figure 2) depicted that heritage attachment (motivation and preferences) has a functional and structural relationship with tourist behavioral intentions essential for the cultural heritage locations in Iloilo to attain economic, socio-cultural, and environmental sustainability, notwithstanding the impact of the current condition (conditional factors) on tourist behavioral intention.
The strategic policy model is to provide heritage and tourism stakeholders a baseline data that will serve as a recommended practical guideline in cultural-heritage tourism development and management in and around Iloilo’s cultural places, sites, and attractions. In addition, this policy model could strengthen the implementation of new tourism policies relative to cultural heritage destinations. Tourism policies are the main umbrella in the strategic policy model. Regional policies for tourism development initially arose as a response to threats to tourism sustainability. Creating a tourism policy ensures and protects the successful standardization of procedures and practices within the tourism industry in which the policy is applied. This standardization promotes consistency and agreement on processes, leading to higher sustainability and quality improvement in tourism products.
The author operationalizes the proposed strategic model during this pandemic by submitting the draft to the Provincial Tourism Office of Iloilo. The proposed model will be presented and later collaborated with the tourism stakeholders involved in tourism policy and planning upon acceptance. The Proposed Strategic Policy Model is depicted in Figure 3.
5. Conclusion
The current condition of cultural heritage destinations dramatically changed tourists’ needs and expectations in the tourism value chain and re-created business models during the pandemic. The numerous socio-cultural, economic, and psychological impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic have caused radical changes in tourist behavior.
The change in the tourism environment brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic changed the tourists’ motivation and preferences in visiting a destination and transforming these constructs a form of heritage attachment in shaping tourist behavior that contributes to revisit intention. Motivation and choices may foster a sense of place identity with a heritage destination.
Subsequently, heritage attachment (motivations and preferences) is highly related to the tourist behavior variables (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and revisit intention). Hence, whenever tourists are passionately attached to the destination, they are expected to revisit the cultural heritage destinations. Heritage attachment and tourist behavior were positively significant and associated with the current conditions in cultural heritage destinations in Iloilo, thus supporting this research’s theoretical foundation. Theoretical implications of the study include motivations and preferences in the heritage attachment theory and extend this theory as key constructs concerning the theory of planned behavior. The results are reliable and valid. The extension, modification and inclusion of new variables with HA and TPB theories align with previous research (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001; Song et al., 2012; Song, Lee, Reisinger, & Xu, 2017). This work also responds to the calls of other scholars, Ajzen (1991), Conner & Abraham (2001), and Oh & Hsu (2001), stressing the need for present socio-psychological theories to be revised to accommodate additional variables. This inclusion is essential within a particular setting or modifying existing paths among latent constructs. Overall, the model, wherein motivation and preference are considered independent variables, provides an in-depth description of the psychosocial and emotional determinants of tourists’ behavioral intentions to engage in cultural heritage tourism.
In terms of practical implications, this study hopes to benefit domestic and international tourists, the local government, heritage preservation and tourism-related authorities, businesses, and local communities. The study could also assist the tourism industry in formulating plans and policies for sustainable cultural heritage destinations. This research is vital and relevant in developing a strategic policy model for the Iloilo province to sustain its Cultural Heritage Destination’s Identity in Western Visayas for future generations. For the recommendation for future research, tourism researchers and scholars may undertake research that positively impacts end-users. With the possible explanation that this study ignores the mediator between the relationships espousing the “cognition-attitude-intention” framework of planned behavior theory, it is necessary to find a mediator variable in TPB or make TPB a mediator.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to express gratitude to all the people behind this study. Special thanks to Dr. Antonino F. Alejandro for his continued assistance and research expertise and Dr. Jean Paolo G. Lacap for assisting the author in the statistical requirements of the study.