Relational Implication of Education on Socio-Economic Integration of Refugees in Zambia: A Case of Mantapala ()
1. Introduction
The refugee crisis throughout the world poses a global challenge both in response and management. Beginning with the legal recognition of refugees after the Second World War, countries have tried to respond to the crisis by granting protection and to some extent, socio-economic integration of refugees. At the time of this research, the highest number of world refugee population were hosted in Turkey with 3.6 million (M); Jordan having 2.9 M; Colombia, 1.7 M; Pakistan, 1.4 M+; Lebanon, 1.4 M+; Uganda, 1.4 M+; Germany, 1.1 M+; Iran, 979,400; and Bangladesh had 854,800 (Amnesty International, 2019). Depicted from these statistics is the fact that most refugees are hosted in developing countries including Africa, thus, posing substantive challenge to economic integration.
Just like in other parts of the world, refugees in Africa are found everywhere, struggling, and engaging in various economic activities to uplift their living standards. The refugee crisis in Africa has been a by-product of many factors including civil wars, ethnic conflicts, military insurgencies, human rights violation, poverty and climate change, among others. As Loescher (1992: p. 3) puts it, while acknowledging the many problems confronting the world, “every year people are displaced and as old problems remain unresolved, new ones emerge.” Indeed, in countries such as Sudan, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Cameroon, Mozambique, and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) where wars remain protracted, neighbouring countries play the role of receiving and protecting refugees. Some of these countries, Zambia for example, have remained consistent in acting as refugee host countries while at the same time, engineering possible ways of integrating them economically.
Since independence in 1964, Zambia has been welcoming refugees. The country has a long history of accepting asylum seekers fleeing from political and civil strife starting with receiving polish refugees during the holocaust (Donger, Leigh, Fuller, & Learning, 2017: p. 10). The first thirty years after independence showed Zambia’s participation in the international system by receiving thousands of refugees from the neighbouring countries including liberation fighters who fought against colonial domination on the continent.
The experience of civil strife and wars in Southern African Region during the 1960s prompted the administration of Kenneth Kaunda to act more receptively by hosting refugees and asylum seekers who were freed from Angola, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia and South Africa. It must be mentioned that Kenneth Kaunda was so much influenced by his ideology of humanism when it comes to the reception of refugees. Believing that Zambia will not be at peace until all other countries around her were at peace, he participated in peace processes in the region and, it will not be alien, therefore, to assert that his receptivity towards refugees and asylum seekers was part of his long process of contributing to peace and coexistence in the region. This can be extrapolated from his statement that “once we have won our struggle, we must still look forward to another, not sorely of Zambians or Africans but for all humanity” (Address to the United Nation General Assembly 19th Session, 1994: 2). This continued even in the years and regimes that followed. Hosting refugees fleeing from conflicts in those countries of the Great Lakes Region (GLR), that include DRC, Rwanda and Burundi has been a norm for Zambia.
From a peace and conflict perspective, Lweendo Kambela (2016: p. 2) hints that “the movement of people across national borders remains the most complicated challenge confronting the world.” Reports indicate that there are about 26.4 million refugees globally (United Nations Refugee Agency, 2020). Most of them live with no hope of restoring their plight, making it challenging for host countries and the international community in allocating appropriate mechanisms to support them (Kambela, 2016: p. 2). Bearing this in mind, it is therefore imperative that all states, international bodies, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), Civil Society Organisation (CSO) and all people of concern to pledge and act upon strategies that would stand relevant to placing refugees under conditions that ensure that their hope is restored and their integration into host communities is secured.
In response to this call, Zambia has been championing the local integration of refugees. For example, between 2015 and 2017, the country “offered legal and socio-economic local integration to all former Angolan refugees who arrived in the country until 2003” (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2017: p. 1). In addition, “Zambia agreed to offer local integration of approximately 4000 former Rwandan refugees who ceased to be refugees due to the application of the cessation clause in 2013” (1). These advances manifest Zambia’s commitment to sustainable management and integration of refugees.
Being a signatory to the United Nations (UN) 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (UNHCR, 1951: pp. 18-24) and its 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugee (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 1967), Zambia has made significant advancements in dealing with the refugee crisis. Through the Ministry of Home Affairs, Zambia created the office of the commissioner for refugees which has the responsibility of the control and management of refugees and asylum seekers using the Refuge (Control) Act of 1970 CAP 120 of the Laws of Zambia. Working out to ensure a sustainable management of refugees, in 2017 the Government of the Republic Zambia (GRZ) enacted a law that could allow refugees who are legally staying in the country with legal permits of work and certification to engage in gainful economic activities such as business and agriculture, as well as to have access to employment (Government of the Republic of Zambia, 2017: p. 41, 42, 45 & 51). This was foreseen to guarantee their gradual socio-economic integration.
Among many factors that foster integration, education plays a significant role. Arguing in a similar vein, Manuel Bessler (2019)affirms that education is essential for individual foundation in socio-economic development. This affirmation points to a need for prioritization of education in the processes of strengthening international cooperation regarding the management of refugees. In so doing, education is not only seen as a strategy that offers refugees integration and economic emancipation but also, a reality that puts them on an equal footage to equality in the society hence, promoting their dignity. More emphatically, Massimo Lanciotti (2019: pp. 31-34) suggests that education should be taken as an essential component in all Comprehensive Refugee Response Frameworks (CRRF) for it provides an added value for displaced people to have access to employment, reduce their vulnerability and enhance their opportunities. As such, there is need, in all refugee management programmes, to ensure that there is a synergy between education and all other programmes oriented towards the improvement of refugee livelihood.
While assessing the Status of Rohingya in Refugee Camps of Bangladesh, Karin, Chowdhury, Hasnat and Tarin (2020) observe the importance of education for refugees in camps. They argue that the decision by the Bangladesh government to specially emphasis on the education service camps with the assistance of humanitarian stakeholders was important. Similarly, Schiltz and Aa der van (2020), report most of the South Sudanese refugee youngsters in northern Uganda consider education central simply because it makes everything possible. This therefore puts education, despite other challenges that comes with refugeehood, as an important piece in the life of refugees.
Zambia’s refugee management system also sees education as an essential element. Likewise, the 2017 Zambia’s Refugee Act offers opportunities for refugees with educational qualification to engage in economic activities including access to employment. Has this helped refugees to have access to employment or improved opportunities for their integration and economic sustainability? What are some of the challenges do refugees in Zambia, despite their education, face as they strive to improve their living standards? These are some fundamental questions that this study investigated.
In January 2018 the government of Zambia opened Mantapala refugee settlement. This marked a progressive shift from encampment policy; that required all refugees and asylum seekers to live in designated places called camps, to resettlement policy; allowing refugees to live outside the camp and integrate with the local population. Located 36 kilometres Southeast of Nchelenge district, Mantapala refugee settlement is an integrated settlement where the local population co-exist with the refugees mostly coming from DRC. It was opened for the purpose of allowing refugees to develop their livelihood by engaging in productive economic activities and contribute to the development of the local community (UNHCR, 2020: p. 1). At the time of writing, the refugee population was approximately 14,000 (UNHCR, 2019).
Through the enaction of the 2017 refugee Act, the government of Zambia hoped for a profound socio-economic integration of refugees in the country. Despite these efforts, it is observable that many refugees, regardless of their educational levels and skills, remain “socially and economically vulnerable” (UNHCR & WFP, 2020: p. 4). Considering that, it was therefore important to undertake a study that aimed at investigating the relational implication of formal education on socio-economic integration of refugees in Zambia, taking the case of Mantapala refugee settlement. This was in view of understanding whether there was a relationship between the education of refugees and their economic integration. Furthermore, the study investigated some of the factors inhibiting educated refugees’ access to employment considering the favourable 2017 refugee policy of Zambia. The study was significant in the sense that the findings contribute to the body of knowledge on education and socio-economic integration of refugees while informing policies and refugees’ development programmes and support many efforts of the government and non-state actors in refugee management.
The analysis, discussion and recommendations of this research were guided by the African indigenous theoretical framework of ubuntu. As a profound lens for advocacy in policy formulation and implementation, ubuntu is common among the bantu speaking people of Southern Africa and Eastern Africa. It is called unhu (Viriri & Viriri, 2018: p. 2) among the Shona of Zimbabwe; ubuntu (Gade, 2012: pp. 485-503) among the Nguni of South Africa; ubuntunse (Kaunda, 2019: p. 149) among the Bemba of Zambia; utu (Kresse, 2011: pp. 246-266) among the Swahili speaking people; and Ūmūndū (Kamwangamalu, 1999: p. 25) among the Kikuyu of Kenya. It can be defined as a phenomenon according to which people are interconnected (Gade, 2012: p. 492)—and finds expression in a Nguni proverb, umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu. This can literally be translated as, “a person is through others” (Gade, 2012: p. 487). John Mbiti (1969: pp. 108-109) puts it clearer with his famous expression—“I am, because we are; and since we are, therefore I am”. Implying that an individual is by necessity a cooperate being. That is to say, he/she can only fulfill duties, responsibilities, and privileges in a community he/she belongs. At the center of this worldview are mutuality, interdependence, collective responsibility and inclusivity. By so doing, ubuntu places an individual at the center of belonging to the community in which he/she finds him/herself. Hence, given an opportunity to avail his or her potentials for the betterment of that community and him/herself.
By implication, refugee resettlement policy (contrary to encampment) could be understood in terms of the worldview of ubuntu. Refugees in a resettlement set up share life, skills, knowledge and co-exist with the local population based on the principle of mutual benefit. This in a way, puts emphasis on the fact that “our true human potential (refugees inclusive) can only be realised in partnership with others” (Gade, 2012: p. 492). Hence, refugees in ubuntu’s worldview are taken to be assets and not burdens. In so doing, designing and implementing policies that regard refugees and their educational skills, qualities, knowledge and human capital as assets that can benefit both the hosting community and refugees themselves, would facilitate the realisation of socio-economic integration. As a theoretical framework, therefore, ubuntu stands significant to guide this study.
2. Methodology
The study was guided by four research questions whose variables were cross tabulated to establish the significance of the relationship. These questions included, 1) What are the categories of levels of education among refugees in Mantapala? 2) What are the economic activities carried out by refugees? 3) To what extent does formal education bear on employment opportunities? 4) What are the challenges inhibiting educated refugee’s access to employment?
2.1. Research Design
The research aimed at establishing the relational implication of formal education on socio-economic integration of refugees in Mantapala refugee settlement. Hence, the use of diagnostic and descriptive approaches was relevant for this study. While the diagnostic aimed at determining the frequency with which variables under investigation were associated (Kothari, 2004: p. 37), the descriptive helped to acquire data related to characteristics (p. 37) of the refugees in Mantapala.
To achieve the above, the researcher employed a cross-sectional research design. This design comprised the collection of data predominantly by questionnaires on more than one case and at a single point in time. Following that, the sample was obtained from Nchelenge district, specifically at Mantapala refugee settlement. Data about education and socio-economic activities was collected from the refugees, some humanitarian and government agents working on the site. As Bryman suggests (2012), this was for the purpose of gathering a body of quantitative or quantifiable data in connection with the variables that were under investigation and examined to detect patterns of association. In the final analysis, this was relevant to understanding the disparities in socio-economic integration of refugees while putting into consideration their levels of education and the various skills necessary for a sustainable socio-economic integration in the Zambian context. This was based on the opinions of the respondents.
2.2. Population and Sampling
Bryman (2012: p. 187) defines population “as the universe of units from which the sample is to be selected” and Sample as the “segment of the population that is selected for investigation” (p. 187). In other words, population simply refers to a group of people from whom the sample is drawn. The researcher had in mind the amount of time and resources it would take to obtain a sample from the entire population of refugees in Zambia. Hence, the study focused primarily on the refugees residing in Mantapala refugee settlement. The total population of refugees in Mantapala was estimated at 14,000 as of June 2020 (UNHCR, 2020: p. 2). Most of these refugees crossed into Zambia mainly through Chiengi district, settled in Kenani Transit Center and were in 2018 relocated to Mantapala refugee settlement. The population is comprised of refugees with farming, trading, some with formal education and artisan background (UNHCR, 2018). According to the UNHCR report of 2018, 49% of the refugee population were male and 51% female.
Bearing that in mind, the method of population sampling that was applied in this case was simple random sampling which is a form of probability sampling. Owing to the fact that the government of Zambia has been making a biometric registration of the refugees in Mantapala, a random selection was carried out so that each refugee in the population had a known chance of being selected (Bryman, 2012: p. 188). To make this easy, the use of a computer aided software called Random Number Generator (RNG); which uses a statistical algorithm to produce random numbers (Warnock, 1987: pp. 137-141; Preez et al., 2011: p. 1), was used to create a list of random numbers based on the specifications of the biometric registration of refugees in Mantapala. The tracing of random numbers (as participant persons in the research) was done with the help of zone leaders who had the knowledge of the presence of refugees in the settlement. Mantapala refugee settlement has 19 zones with a population of 300 households in each zone, headed by a zone leader.
The above procedure guaranteed the representativeness of the population and kept minimum sampling error. In this manner, the statistical conclusions drawn from the analysis of the sample have a general application to the refugee population and are substantially valid. Furthermore, Yamane’s formular, which is an approximation of known sample size for proportion at 95% confidence level and population proportion of 0.5—applicable in categorical variables (Adam, 2020), was used to calculate a sample size [see below].
Yamane’s Formula
where n = Sample size
N = Target population
e = The margin of error (0.05)
Calculated from the target population of 14,000 refugees, the sample size was 388.888889 and was then ‘rounded off’ to 389. For the purpose of easy handling of data, collection cost, resources and timeframe for the field research (3rd February to 25th February), the sample size of the refugee participants was reduced to 100. This was done by subjecting 389 to the RNM that gave 100 random numbers. Of the 100 refugee participants, 90 received the questionnaires to respond to the questions that were predominantly quantitative in nature, and 10 were subjected to semi-structured interviews that helped to obtain qualitative data. The 10 interviewees were chosen using simple random sampling as well. Here, the researcher allocated each participant with a number from 1 to 100. The RNM then played the same role of generating 10 random numbers from the total 100. Each interviewee was then allocated 20 minutes of interviews with the interviewer who happened to be the principal researcher. Of the 90 participants who received the questionnaires, only 76 participants returned them.
The researcher also wanted to find out the views of key informants such as government and other humanitarian agents working in Mantapala refugee settlement on the topic of education and socio-economic integration of refugees. 5 government workers and 5 humanitarian agents were sampled out using snowballing research technique, which “yields a study sample through referrals among people who share or know of others who possess some characteristics that are of research interest” (Biernack & Waldorf, 1981: p. 141). This sampling technique was chosen simply because accessing information from government workers and humanitarian agents could be difficult due to their nature of work and engagement in the settlement. In the end, 5 government workers and 4 humanitarian agents were able to return the questionnaires. Making the total participants accessed in this study to be 95.
2.3. Research Site, Data Collection Process, Reliability of the Instruments and Analysis
The reason for choosing Mantapala refugee settlement was because the government of Zambia has prioritized it as a pilot area for the promotion of refugee livelihood integration (UNHCR, 2018: p. 1). As earlier referred to, data was collected using research instruments in the form of questionnaires and interview guide questions. The instruments contained both, closed-ended and open-ended questions. Data collected from semi structured interviews were transcribed in a notebook with the aid of two research assistants. Questionnaires and the interview data were assigned with codes. For example, data from the refugee participants was codified as D4R-1 or D4R-2; to mean data from the first or second refugee participant. D4H-1 or D4H-2; to justify data obtained from the first or second humanitarian agent. D4G-1 or D4G-2; to imply data from the first or second government official.
Before the actual field research, the research instrument went through rigorous assessment with lecturers at Hekima Institute of Peace Studies and International Relations (HIPSIR), fellow students, and other people who expressed interest in the study. This helped to establish clarity and consistency of the instrument. Also, the instrument was subjected to a test-retest method on 10 people (Refugees from DRC, Burundi and Rwanda residing in Nairobi—Kenya). 9 (90%) of the people who took part in the test-retest method indicated that questions in the instruments were clear and easily understood. Hence, giving the researcher confidence in determining the reliability and validity (Salkind, 2010: p. 239; Haradhan, 2017: p. 72) of the instrument.
Bearing in mind that this research employed a mixed method of research, the researcher used a computer aided data analysis program called Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)—one-way and two-way (crosstabulation)—to analyse quantitative data. For qualitative data, a thematic analysis was used to identify patterns of themes in semi-structured interview data.
3. Results
The presentation of the results is structured as follows: first, participants’ biographical data; second, assessment of levels of education with other variables; third, economic activities with other variables; fourth, the bearing of education on employment in relation to other variables; and fifth, challenges inhibiting educated refugees’ access to employment.
3.1. Participants’ Biographical Data
The Biodata is dispersed in four categories. The first category (which has been characterized as G-1) presents the biodata of 76 participants who returned the questionnaires. The second category (G-2) is concerned with participants who participated in the interviews. The third and the fourth categories (G-3 and G-4 respectively) represent humanitarian and government agents who participated in this research.
The biodata distribution of G-1 constituted gender, age bracket, marital status, countries of origin and the number of years lived in Mantapala. This information, applied as well to the participants in the interviews. Out of 76 participants who returned the questionnaires, 53 were male and 23 were female. A representation of 69.7% and 30.3% of male and female respectively. For age and marital status within G-1, Table 1 and Table 2 give the distributions.
Among the participants in G-1, 73 (96.12%) indicated that they originated from DRC and only 3 (3.9%) marked Burundi. Besides countries of origin, the researcher tried also to find out the number of years participants in the G-1 category had lived in Mantapala. Table 3 gives the scores and percentages.
The disparities reflected in the distribution of gender, age bracket, country of
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Table 1. Distribution of age bracket in G-1.
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Table 2. Distribution of marital status in G-1.
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Table 3. Scores of the number of years in Mantapala.
origin and number of years were as a result of the technique that was used for sampling. In other words, the researcher could not influence the distribution since the sampling was random. Every participant with varying biodata had equal chance of being selected.
Among the 10 participants in G-2, 6 (60%) were male and 4 (40%) females. 1 (10%) participant was between the age of 18 - 24, 4 (40%) were between 25 - 34, 1 (10%) between 35 - 44, 2 (20%) were between 45 - 54 and 2 (20%) between 55 - 65 years. Regarding marital status, 2 (20%) were single, 6 (60%) married, 1 (10%) widow and 1 (10%) widower. All the 10 (100%) participants in G-2 were from DRC. 1 (10%) had lived in Mantapala at least 0 - 1 year, 6 (60%) lived between 2-3 years and 3 (30%) had lived between 4 - 5 years.
Participants in G-3 were 2 (50%) males and 2 (50%) females, making the total to 4 (100%) who returned the questionnaires. All the 4 participants had worked in Mantapala refugee settlement at least 2 - 3 years. Of these, 1 (25%) worked as a protection officer and the other 3 (75%) worked as humanitarian aid agents. In the G-4 category, there were 2 (40%) males and 3 (60%) females. The total number of participants who returned the questionnaires were 5 (100%). 1 (20%) of them had worked in Mantapala between 0 - 1 and the other 4 (80%) had worked in the area between 2 - 3 years at the time of this research. Among them, 2 (40%) worked as humanitarian agents, 1 (20%) served for reception, registration, and issuance of community refugee and immigration services (CRIs), 1 (20%) was responsible of issuing refugee mobility passes and 1 (20%) was a protection officer. With the above biodata distribution, the researcher proceeded with the analysis of data collected to establish the significance and relationship of variables through cross tabulations. A Pearson Chi-Square of .05 was used as a measure of the magnitude and significance of the relationship.
3.2. Assessing Levels of Education with Other Variables
Through the first research question the researcher wanted to find out the categories of the levels of education among refugees in Mantapala. Under this theme, questions were designed in such a way that participants were asked to tick what pertained to their level of education. 7 (9.21%) indicated primary, 24 (31.58%) responded secondary, 10 (13.16%) had reached vocational training, 22 (28.95%) were of tertiary (university and college) level and 13 (17.11%) did not belong to any of these categories. The levels of education were subsequently cross tabulated with other variables including, area of specialisation, the help of educational qualifications in getting employment, activities done by refugees for a living and the type of work refugees did. The following are the results.
After cross tabulation, a chi-squire test of education by area of specialisation among refugees indicated that there was a significant relationship between the two variables. The Magnitude of the relationship was indicated by Cramer’s V of .398, the significance of .002 and the Pearson chi-square value of 48.077a. The relational significance was attributed to the fact that, after a frequency analysis of data, 63 (82.9%) (in total) of the 76 participants indicated that they had either achieved primary, secondary, vocational training or tertiary level of education. Only 13 (17.6%) did not reach any level of education (Table 4).
At the same time, among those who had acquired some level of education, 56.5% had attained some specialisation in the areas of education, health and medical science, business entrepreneurship, social science and community development, mechanical science and engineering, literature, and language. Only 33 (43.42%) of the 76 participants had no specialisation or did not indicate anything to the question on specialisation. Hence, affirming a significant relational implication between levels of education and areas of specialisation among refugees in Mantapala.
From Table 5 a cross tabulation of education by its help to getting employment presented that the degree of relationship indicated by Cramer’s V was .437. The results of the analysis gave a Pearson chi-square value of 14.497a, the degree of freedom (df) was 4 and an asymptomatic significant score of .006.
Looking at the results of the chi-square test, which showed a statistically significant relationship, a number of reasons were attributed to this outcome. Among them, is the idea that someone with a considerable level of education
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Table 4. Education by area of specialization.
Chi-square = 48.077a, df = 24, Sig = .002, Cramer’s V = .398.
had a high chance of being employed due to presupposed skills that come with formal education. These reasons could be substantiated as well by the frequency analysis, obtained from quantitative data on how education helped in getting employment. Out of 76 participants, 48 of them, representing 63.2%, agreed that educational qualification helped to get employment. Only 29, representing 36.8% answered that education did not help them to get a job.
Cross tabulation analysis between education and activities done for a living among refugees in Mantapala indicated that there was a statistically significant relationship of .003. With a chi-square value of 36.441a and 16 as a df, the magnitude of the relationship was indicated by Cramer’s V of .346. There were several reasons to justify this relationship. Firstly, a likelihood that those who had acquired some levels of education were likely to engage in one activity or the other to improve their livelihood was observed. As shown in Table 6, those with secondary school, vocational training and tertiary level of education were employed in the public or private sector and some, using their skills and knowledge, took initiative to engage in business adventure to improve their economic integration in their new environment.
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Table 5. Education by its help to getting employment.
Chi-Square = 14.497a, df = 4, Sig = .006, Cramer’s V = .437.
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Table 6. Education by Activities done for a living.
Chi-Square = 36.441a, df = 16, Sig = .003, Cramer’s V = .346.
Apart from the activities done for a living under the theme on categories of educational levels, the researcher also wanted to know the relationship between education and the type of work refugees did. Did the level of education influence the type of work refugees did? The outcome of the cross tabulation between the two variables showed a significance of .008, a chi-square value of 43.942a and 24 as the df. The magnitude of the relationship was indicated by Cramer’s V .380.
The reason for the above observation is that those who had acquired secondary level of education, vocational training, and tertiary level, had an advantage of being employed as teachers, community health workers, social workers, interpreters, or registration officers in the settlement compared to those with primary level of education or had no qualifications at all. The type of work participants did, to some extent depended on the level of education one had. As shown on in Table 7, 24 (31.58%), 10 (13.16%) and 22 (28.95%) of secondary, vocational, and tertiary level of education respectively, manifested a higher score of participants engaged in some kind of work compared to 7 (9.21%) of primary level and 13 (17.10%) who had no level of education.
3.3. Economic Activities with Other Variables
In host environments, refugees take up different economic activities. In the context of Mantapala refugee settlement, refugees have taken up various economic activities including farming, business, employment in public and private sectors. Here, four variables were investigated and cross tabulated. They include country of origin, economic activities done for a living, years of stay in Mantapala and type of resource competition. Prior analysis of the frequency indicated that 73 (96.1%) of the participants originated from DRC and only 3 (3.9%) came from Burundi. 38 (50%) of the 76 participants indicated that land for agriculture was one of the main resources under competition, 30 (39.47%) did not respond to the question on resource competition and only 8 (10.53%) indicated that there was no competition over any resource. To get the magnitude of the relationship
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Table 7. Education by type of work refugees do.
Chi-Square= 43.942a, df = 24, Sig = .008, Cramer’s = .380.
between the aforementioned variables, the researcher carried out a cross tabulation.
The relationship was significant by .003. This was so because, 73 (96.1%) of the participants originated from DRC compared to 3 (3.9%) from Burundi. As such, there was high probability that more Congolese could be employed and had high likelihood of being engaged in one economic activity or the other. For example, the public sector had the highest score of the participants from DRC – 37 (48.68%) compared to 0 (0%) for the Burundians and was followed by the business sector with 18 (23.68%) compared to 1 (1.31%) of Burundians (Table 8).
In investigating whether there was a relationship between years of stay in Mantapala by type of resource competition, the researcher discovered that the relationship was not significant. In other words, the number of years a refugee stayed in Mantapala did not necessary imply that he or she would engage in some type of resource competition. This is justified by the fact that the level of significance at .099 went beyond the 0.05 limit of the significance value. As shown in Table 9, although 38 (50%) expressed that land for agriculture was the main resource for competition (generating some tensions), the numbers of years lived in Mantapala did not influence this perception.
3.4. Bearing of Education on Employment with Other Variables
The researcher also wanted to find out the bearing of formal education on employment opportunities. To treat this theme, education, employment, help of education in getting employment and sector of employment are some of the variables that were considered. The following section presents cross tabulation results.
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Table 8. Country of origin by economic activities done for a living.
Chi-Square = 15.848a, df = 4, Sig = .003, Cramer’s V = .457.
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Table 9. Years of stay in Mantapala by type of resource competition
Chi-Square = 7.795a, df = 4, Sig = .099, Cramer’s V = .226.
The results of this cross tabulation showed that there was a significant relationship with a significance score of .003. The magnitude of this relation was determined by Cramer’s V of .461. The relationship suggested that those who had attained at least secondary, vocational training and tertiary educational level had a high chance of being employed. For example, among the 22 (28.95%) participants who were in the category of tertiary level, 18 (23.68%) of them were employed. Similarly, of the 24 (31.58%) participants who indicated secondary level, 19 (25%) of them were employed. The same was applicable to the 10 (13.16%) participants with vocational training, 9 (11.84%) of them were working (Table 10).
The relationship was highly significant by .000. The results indicate that, of the 76 participants, 43 (56.58%) were employed in a formal sector, 9 (11.84%) were in informal and 24 (31.58%) were neither in formal nor informal. Among those in the formal sector, 33 (43.42%) saw that educational qualifications helped in getting employment in the formal sector and 10 (13.16%) did not find it helpful. For those in informal sector, 8 (10.56%) found qualifications helpful while 1 (1.31%) did not find them helpful. Those who were neither in formal nor informal sector, only 7 (9.21%) expressed that qualifications were helpful while 17 (22.37%) did not find them helpful (Table 11).
3.5. Challenges of Access to Employment with Other Variables
Through the last research question the researcher wanted to find out the challenges
Chi-Square = 16.124a, df = 4, Sig = .003, Cramer’s V = .461.
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Table 11. Educational qualifications by sector of employment.
Chi-Square= 17.889a, df = 2, Sig = .000, Cramer’s V = .485.
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Table 12. Education by challenges to certifying qualifications.
Chi-Square= 32.742a, df = 16, Sig = .008, Cramer’s V = .328.
behind educated refugees’ access to employment. Here, the researcher analysed and cross tabulated four variables. Education was cross tabulated with challenges to certifying qualifications in Zambia. Benefits of education on adaptation went with other challenges of getting employment. The results of this analysis are presented in Table 12.
The cross tabulation above manifested that there was a statistical significance of .008 with a chi-square value of 32.742a and 16 as the df. Cramer’s V indicating the degree of the relationship was .328. This relationship was attributed to the fact that most of the participants with higher level of education found it difficult to certify their certificates. The difficulty was due to expensive fees and others did not know properly the process of applying for certification. As indicated in Table 12, 13 (17.10%) of those in the category of secondary and tertiary levels respectively expressed that they found it expensive to certify their documents.
The researcher wanted also to find out whether there was a significant relationship between benefits of education on adaptation and challenges to getting employment. Cross tabulation of these variables produced a Pearson chi-square value of 99.677a, significant at .000 and df was 20. The magnitude of the relationship was indicated by Cramer’s V of .573. The relationship was highly significant because most of the participants who expressed that education was beneficial for employment acquisition, also expressed that the process was hindered by limited employment opportunities in Mantapala, lack of work permits and lack of certified educational qualifications (Table 13).
4. Discussion
Drawing from the results of the data analysis presented, it has become clear that education is a major influence on socio-economic integration of refugees in Zambia and particularly, Mantapala refugee settlement. Certainly, education is an important asset not only in the lives of refugees as they strive for economic integration in host countries but also, it has a potential to contribute to state building and reduce state burden in responding to the needs of refugees. Considerably, a
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Table 13. Education by other challenges to employment.
Chi-Square= 99.677a, df = 20, Sig = 000, Cramer’s V = .573.
sustainable integration of refugees requires that a comprehensive road map, inspired by the principles and the spirit of ubuntu is put in effect so as to help refugees migrate from socio-economic burdens to socio-economic assets. The findings of this research have shown that, despite the hindrances to socio-economic integration of refugees, education remains paramount for sustainable integration.
As a matter of importance, the results of this research are in harmony with the 2017 Zambia’s refugee Act that put emphasis on the need for refugees with work permits and some form of trade (educational qualifications) recognized by relevant authorities, to engage in gainful income generating activities. The results are also in agreement with the UN’s Global Compact on Refugees (UN, 2018) and Zambia’s CRRF (UNHCR, 2019) that seek to mobilize political will, reaffirm humanity, and strengthen international solidarity in the management of refugees. Zambia’s CRRF intended to relax encampment policy, allowing for more freedom of movement, enhance co-existence among Zambian citizens and refugees, create favourable measures for refugees to access work and promote self-reliance. All these areas postulate a well-balanced aspiration towards the realisation of a refugee management system based on ubuntu.
Considering the importance of education and its contribution to socio-economic integration, the results of the first research question are interesting. It has been revealed that education influenced areas of specialisation among refugees, helped them to get employment, and influenced the type of economic activities and kind of work refugees did. There was a strong relationship that those who had attained education levels beyond primary school, were also having some form of specialisation in education, health and medical science, business entrepreneurship, social science and community development, mechanical science and engineering, literature, and language. This was justified by the .002, .006 and .003 magnitude of the relationship (see Tables 4-6). At the same time, the potential for inclusion in the labour market also depended on the category of education a refugee belonged to. Those with secondary, vocational training or tertiary level of education had a high chance of being employed in the formal sector. For example, as in Table 10, 18 (23.68%) of the 22 (28.98%) of those who belonged in the tertiary category of education were employed. The results further revealed that those with a considerable level of education were likely to initiate some form of business due to improved skills that come with education. In the same vein, education helped to acquire formal employment as compared to informal type of work. The results show that 43 (56.58%) were employed in the formal sector as compared to 9 (11.84%) in the informal sector (see Table 11).
The second research question explored further economic activities refugees in Mantapala were engaged in. It was observed that, among the participants in this research, 37 (48.68%) were employed in the public sector, 18 (23.68%) were in business, 14 (18.42%) were employed in the private sector and the remaining percentages were involved in farming and depended on aid as well (see Table 8). While exploring the bearing of formal education on employment opportunities under the third research question, it was discovered that education increased one’s chances of employment opportunities. The magnitude and significance of the relationship was .000. However, education needed to be accompanied by certificates and other necessary documentations such as work permits. Most of the refugees who were employed in the public and private sector expressed that lack of work permits and certification of their educational qualifications forced them in their employment to work for incentives. As a result, a refugee working as a teacher for example, having the same qualification as the Zambian citizen and doing the same work, could not receive the same salary due to lack of the aforementioned documents.
Further revelation indicated that a conflict regarding land for agriculture was emerging in Mantapala refugee settlement. While there was no direct influence between the number of years a refugee had stayed in Mantapala and resource competition, it was discovered that land for agriculture among the refugees and the Zambian citizens in the same area was becoming a problem. It was revealed that the land which was allocated to refugees by the Zambian government was not well clarified on its use. When refugees want to use it for agriculture, the citizens of Zambia claim it and at times, they demand some form of payments to be used for farming. As in Table 9, half 38 (50%) of the 76 refugee participants confirmed an emerging land conflict. This confirms what Kerstin Fisk’s (2019: p. 61) obversion in his study, “camp settlement and communal conflict in Sub-Sahara Africa”, that the host government’s appropriation of land for camps/settlement, particularly if the hosts rely on access to land for their own livelihood, has the potential to increase tension between refugees and host communities.
The results pertaining the fourth research question (challenges behind educated refugees’ access to employment) were intriguing in the sense that, not only did they affirm the results of the third research question (extent to which formal education bear on employment opportunities) but also, exposed several other challenges inhibiting educated refugees’ access to employment. The magnitude of the relationship, as in Table 13 was .000, a perfect relationship. This revelation indicated that most refugees, even though they may have some form of trade and educational qualifications, face the challenge of expensive fees to certify their qualifications and seeking employment in Zambia. This to some extent, has an implication on a progressive application of solidarity in a spirit of ubuntu. Has this common African value been neglected? How can it be revamped to meet the challenge of refugee integration? On the one hand, some refugees have no proper information on how to go about the process of applying for certification of their qualifications—they also lacked knowledge of their rights and duties as refugees. On the other hand, some of them lack also proper documents.
For example, the challenges to accessing employment by educated refugees are related to lack of work permits and limited employment opportunities in Mantapala. Lack of work permit was associated with expensive fees which refugees mostly failed to pay and limited employment opportunities were associated with isolation of Mantapala, limited freedom of movement, and poor road networks. This confirms similar findings of Wong (2018) in Kenya, which showed that lack of access to the labour market isolated refugees from employment. Thus, one may have necessary qualifications; however, the above challenges remained hindrances to accessing employment. In the final analysis, a profound socio-economic integration of refugees with formal education requires that some of these challenges are addressed.
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
Having confirmed through the analysis of the field data and discussion, that education is a major influence on socio-economic integration of refugees, the research has also highlighted some challenges. Profoundly, heightened fees for both, certification of education qualification and acquisition of work permit, isolation from the labour market and limited movements, emerging resource (land) competition, lack of proper documents, limited information on refugee rights and duties, among others, remain the main challenges. In response to this situation, the researcher recommends the following:
5.1. Reigniting the Principle of Ubuntu
Expensive fees to validating educational qualifications and acquiring of work permits hinder socio-economic integration of refugees. Considering the economic vulnerability and the poverty they continue to experience; higher fees pose a question that has been asked by many Pan-Africanists and those interested in African cultures: where have we taken our African value of ubuntu? In as much as the refugee policy in Zambia is progressive, there is need to address hiked fees on work permits to reflect what the principles of solidarity and inclusivity propagate. A manageable fee that puts into consideration the economic standards of refugees would be important. Indeed, to exploit and unlock the economic potentials that refugees come with, lies in the belief that we can only be fully human together. Hence, policies pertaining to economic integration and development of refugees ought to be inspired and driven by the teaching of ubuntu both, at the level of formulation and implementation.
5.2. Advancing Meritocracy
Together with the need to promote solidarity, there is need to advance and promote employment of refugees and the local population on merit. Let he or she who is qualified for the job get it. In a case of those refugees and host population who do not meet the merit, socio-economic empowerment packages will therefore be of importance to the vulnerable refugees and host population. In this way, a progressive socio-economic integration of refugees in Zambia will be enhanced. As such, both educated and non-educated refugees could be empowered to compete and share their skills and knowledge in the labour market, thus, improving productivity and contributing to the economic growth of the country while at the same time, reducing dependence on aid and state burden.
5.3. Embracing Technology
As it is a reality in Africa, conflicts have displaced many people. In the process, they leave behind or lose their assets including certificates. However, the use of technology, through digital depositories of relevant documents will be important. As such, creating (in countries and institutions where it does not exist) and promoting (in countries and institutions where it exists) the use of Digital Education Qualifications Data Space (DEQDS) is vital. The creation of DEQDS application to store certificates with functions integrated with quick response (QR) code could prove relevant in today’s education system.
5.4. Conflict Trends and Mitigation Monitor (CTMM)
As land competition possess a potential challenge to refugee integration, there is need to establish conflicts trends monitor in Mantapala refugee settlement. This monitor will help to understand the dynamics of conflict that could arise from resource competition and set up strategies to address underlying issues in collaboration with the government, traditional local authorities, host population, refugees and other interested parties and organisations in the settlement.
5.5. Rights and Duties Information Center
The results of this research have shown that refugees have limited knowledge on certifying their qualifications and acquisition of work permits. Some of them do not know what their rights and duties are and so, remain isolated to many initiatives that can help them to integrate well in Zambia. As such, there is a need to make information of that nature as part of the basic needs. Perhaps, an office/centre in the refugee settlements, dealing specifically with helping refugees to have clear information on certifying qualifications, acquisition of work permits, and other rights and duties of refugees could be an important thing to enhance or establish.
5.6. Enhancing Research on African Indigenous Knowledge
Although in recent times there have been calls to advance research in African culture(s) and civilisations, little is being done to ensure exploration of African indigenous knowledge to address current pressing issues. This research, like many others, has shown that it is possible to enhance research in African culture(s) and draw from their insights that can help to address modern challenges including the refugee crisis. It is therefore a call that policies that are framed to respond to current challenges may be inspired by some African indigenous thoughts.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the following for their support and guidance during my research. The Hekima Institute of Peace Studies and International Relations, Prof. Omoka K. Wanakai (May His Soul Rest in Peace), Dr. Deogratias M. Rwezaura, Dr. Elias Mokua, The Society of Missionaries of Africa, data providers, and the office of the commissioner for refugees in Zambia—for allowing me to carry out the research in Mantapala refugee settlement. Lastly but not the least, I thank my mother, Christina Mwansa, for her motherly support throughout my research.