*Note: Matsuo Sekine was with the Tokyo Institute of Technology and the National Defense Academy of Japan.
1. Introduction
The present author has proposed an infinite sub-layer quark model [1] and showed that there exists an infinite number of non-baryonic and half-electric charged
and
quarks at an infinite sub-layer level. The superscript CP means charge conjugation and parity transformation. The ultimate particle
has all one-half quantum numbers of spin
, isospin
, the third component of isospin
and fractional electric charge
where e is the electron charge. The infinite sub-layer quark model was based on fractal self-similarities and implied that the proton (p) and the neutron (n) are made up of
and
quarks, so that
and
. Furthermore,
and
quarks are made up of
and
, etc. This is illustrated in Figure 1.
In summary,
and
quarks at levelN are made up of
and
quarks at level N + 1, such as
and
where
.
Here, the
and
quarks have quantum numbers of spin
, isospin
, baryon number
, third component of isospin
and fractional electric charge
for he
quark, and
and
for the
quark. The fractional electric charge
is derived from the Gell-Mann-Nishijima formula,
[2]. The antiparticle of
is the
quark, since the baryon number vanishes at
. The number of quarks at level N is 3N. Thus, at
, an infinite number of point-like quarks (
) and anti-quarks (
) is considered as constituting the nucleon. The superscript CP means charge conjugation and parity transformation. The ultimate particle
has quantum numbers of
,
,
and
. Thus, all quantum numbers of the
quark are just one-half and this quark is non-baryonic, since the baryon number B is zero at an infinite sub-layer level. In a previous paper [3], we proposed the non-baryonic and exotic quark
as an excellent candidate for non-baryonic cold dark matter to comprise the universe, since they are absolutely stable and the non-baryonic particles with the baryon number 0. In this model, a pair of an infinite number of
and
quarks can be produced thermally in the hot early universe of the Big Bang and form the nucleons, and leave approximately the right relic abundance to account for the observed dark matter. Also, in this paper, we will show that CP is violated in only doublet of the ultimate quarks
and anti-quarks
to account for the asymmetry of particles and anti-particles in the present universe.
To this end, we considered the SU(2) noncommutative geometry from our published paper [4] and our published book [5].
Now we see the higher hierarchy of clusters from quarks to galaxies. This is also based on fractal and self-similarities similar to the infinite sub-layer quark model. For example, as we move to the lower side of the hierarchy of structures, we studied an infinite sublayer quark model. On the other hand, attempts have been made to model the higher side of the hierarchy of structures of the universe through fractal-like geometry. This is shown in Figure 2.
stars form a galaxy
with radius
,
galaxies form a second order galaxy
with radius
,
,
galaxies form the i-th order galaxy
Figure 1. Proton is made up of
and neutron
. Furthermore,
quarkis made up of
and
quark
.
with radius
,
, and infinitum. The Swedish astronomer Charlier showed that if the condition
is satisfied, we can avoid the following Olbers paradox [6]: In 1826, Olbers had remarked that, if the universe were infinite and filled uniformly with stars, then the sky should glow as brightly as the face of the sun [7]. In modern cosmology, this paradox is explained by the expansion of the universe.
According to Alfvén, the hierarchical structure theory of the universe does not necessarily come into conflict with the Big Bang theory [8]. Thus, the infinite sub-layer quark model is similar to the hierarchical fractal-like universe. In a previous paper [9], the present author proposed the Cantor set quark model as an alternative to the infinite sub-layer quark model. Then we introduce the colors. we introduce the color charges of red(R), green(G) and blue(B) in quantum chromodynamics (QCD) and propose that the proton and the neutron are made of an infinite number of
,
,
and
,
,
. The color-neutral system, that is, “white” color requires R + G + B = 1 with 1/3 color charge quantum number for each R, G, B color charges.
In the following, we shall apply the Cantor set to the quark model without introducing the color charges. In both the Cantor model and an infinite sublayer model, there exists an infinite number of
and
quarks.
Then we compare the electron-positron measurements with the prediction from
and
quarks. Finally, it is shown that the dark matter, leptons, gauge bosons and Higgs bosons are composed of
and
quarks.
Thus, the Higgs bosons are composed of
and
dark matter particles and give the masses to gauge bosons, quarks and leptons in the framework of the standard
electroweak model. Moreover, we will replace the Higgs potential by the gravitational potential and it is then shown that the masses are produced and a cosmological constant is derived [10]. It was then emphasized that if we can write down the nth order T product Green’s function in the path-integral representation, then it is expected to construct a quantization theory including the cosmological constant. This prescription of the quantization by path-integral representation without the gravitational field is suggested from our published paper [11] and our published book [12].
2. The Cantor Set Constructed from an Infinite Number of Quarks
We will show that the Cantor set [13] is constructed from an infinite number of point-like
and
quarks. The Cantor middle-thirds or ternary set is described by repeatedly removing the open middle thirds of a set of line segments. Begin with the interval [0, 1] and divide it into three equal open intervals, that is,
,
,
. Remove the open middle third
, leaving two line segments:
. Next, subdivide each of these two remaining intervals into three equal open subintervals and again delete the open middle third
of each of these remaining intervals, and so on, ad infinitum. In this infinite process, finally, the Cantor set contains an infinite number of points. The Cantor set is an example of fractal and self-similarity [4]. We apply this process to the infinite sub-layer quark model. We begin with (
,
,
) quarks which constitute the proton. Here the superscript M means the middle quark between
and
quarks. Now we remove the
quark, leaving (
,
) behind. Next, the
and
quarks are subdivided into
and
and again we remove the
and
quarks, leaving us with four quarks ((
,
), (
,
)). This process is to be continued infinitely. The number of leaving quarks at level N is 2N where
. Thus, at
, there exists an infinite number of point-like quarks (
) and anti-quarks (
). Finally, it is concluded that an infinite number of point-like
and
quarks that remain after all these middle quarks have been removed is called the Cantor set. The removed middle quarks are arranged as follows:
(1)
where
. At
, there exists an infinite number of point-like quarks
and anti-quarks
with all half-quantum numbers. We will show that the proton is constructed from these removed quarks of (1).
First, consider the baryon number. If we add up the baryon number from (1), we obtain
. This total is the geometric progression. The electric charge Q is calculated from (1) as
.
Thus, the constituents from the removed middle quarks of (1) are the proton. Namely, the proton
is corresponding top = (
,
,
,
,
,
,
, an infinite number of point-like quarks
and anti-quarks
).
Now consider (
,
,
) quarks which constitute the neutron. In the same way to the (
,
,
) quarks, we repeat any step in this infinite process. The removed quarks are as follows:
(2)
where
. At
, there exists also an infinite number of point-like quarks
and anti-quarks
having all half-quantum numbers.
From (2), the baryon number is calculated as
and the electric charge Q is
.
Thus, the constituents from the middle removed quarks of (2) are the neutron. Namely, the neutron
is corresponding to n = (
,
,
,
,
,
,
, an infinite number of point-like quarks
and anti-quarks
).
As shown in Figure 3, this is pictured as a solar or atom system, with the sun corresponding to the nucleus, and the orbiting planets to the electrons. It is amazing to note that there exists an infinite number of the ultimate quark
and anti-quark
in the orbitor shell of the infinity. Thus, a miniature solar system is so ubiquitous in nature. Recently, there has been great interest in the atomic shell model in a field of quantum mechanics, elementary particle physics and quantum gravity. For example, Bohr’s classical atomic model was applied to Black holes [14]. It was then shown that the radiation transition from one allowed shell to another shell is related to the Hawking radiation.
3. Experimental Evidence for the Ultimate
and
Quarks
We will examine the cross-section ratio R in electron-positron annihilation into muon pairs and quark pairs.
This is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 3. Atomic shell model of the structure of the proton and the neutron derived from the Cantor set.
Figure 4. Electron-positron annihilation into muon pairs and quark pairs.
The lowest order QED total cross-section for the process via a virtual photon (
)
gives
(2)
where
is the fine structure constant and
is the center-of-mass energy [2].
We neglected the lepton masses. An
annihilation can produce hadrons through a virtual photon (
) and
.
We obtain the total cross section
(3)
Here
are quark charges for the flavorsf = u, d, s, c, b and t.
are the color charges c = red, green and blue and
.
The cross section ratio R for quarks
is written as
(4)
From Table 1 and the following generalized Gell-Mann-Nishizima formula,
. (5)
We obtain the following for cross section ratio R for u, d, s, c and b quarks:
for u, d, s quarks
foru, d, s, c quarks (6)
for u, d, s, c, b quarks
From u, d, s, c and b quarks, we obtain the theoretical branching ratio R = 11/3 = 3.67. The third order QCD radiation correction formula is written as
(7)
and gives
, thus the QCD correction increases the predicted value by ~5% [15] which agrees with our predicated value R = 15/4 = 3.75 from an infinite number of quarks and anti-quarks model better than the naïve 5 quark value R = 11/3 = 3.67.
Thus, from Table 2, we obtain
for
quarks
for
quarks (8)
for
quarks.
Table 1. Additive quantum numbers of the quarks in the standard model. The subscript “L” indicates the left-handed particle.
Table 2. Additive quantum numbers at an infinite sublayer level. All quantum number is just one-half.
Now, we compare our prediction value R = 15/4 = 3.75 with the measurements in electron-positron annihilation into muon pairs and quark pairs.
In a previous paper [16] we compared the ratio R with the data for the entire PETRA energy region [17].
Here, the data come from many storage-ring collider experiments [18] - [25].
The predicted 5 quark valueR = 15/4 = 3.75 is shown by the solid straight line in Figure 5 and agrees with the experiments.
4. CP Violation in the Doublets of Quarks
and Antiquarks
In our model, the left-handed weak isospin doublet of quarks and right-handed singlet are written as:
Figure 5. Various experimental values R [18] - [25] versus predicted value R = 3.75.
(9)
The symmetry between the left-handed and right-handed quarks is broken. To explain CP violation, we introduce a phase factor
with an ordinary number
into the left-handed weak isospin doublet, viz.
(10)
The Lagrangian describing the electroweak interactions of
and
quarks is written as follows:
(11)
where g and g' are coupling constants of
and
, respectively,
are three gauge fields of
,
is the gauge field of
,
are the
generators of
and Y is the weak hypercharge. Furthermore,
and
are coupling constants of
and
quarks with Higgs boson.
is the Higgs doublet and
is its complex representation.
To account for CP violation, we shall consider the quantum numbers of weak isospin
and
for the ultimate particles
and
, where
means the left-handed particle operated upon by charge conjugation C and then by parity P, viz.,
(12)
At the infinite sublayer quark model, the hepercharge of
and
quarks becomes zero by applying the Gell-Mann-Nishijima relation to weak quantum numbers.
Now we consider the doublet
where the superscript T means transposed. Then the Lagrangian describing the electroweak interactions is written as follows:
(13)
where g is the coupling constant of
and
,
are three gauge fields of
and
are the generators of
.
In the electroweak theory,
is adopted as a gauge group from the Lagrangian L in Equation (13).
Now we consider the doublet
where the superscript T means transposed. If A is a scalar, then CP is not violated. To account for CP violation, it is necessary to extend a scalar phase factor A to a matrix formed by γ matrix.
If A is a scalar, for example,
, where the phase
is an ordinary number.
Then,
is written as
. (14)
It is important to note that the phase factor
cannot be eliminated by redefining the phase. Then we considered the internal structure which is described by the
noncommutative geometry. That is, the internal space operated by
is called the representation space mathematically. This is a two-dimensional vector space over the complex Körper C. Here we deform this space and assume a plane with the periodical boundary in each coordinate direction. After all, the internal space is described by the deformed
-bundle, in which the fiber associate in time-space is torus. Thus we consider the periodical condition on a two-dimensional vector space. By imposing the noncommutative conditions on two periodical functions on torus, we consider CP violation from the noncommutative internal structure on such space.
Let the spinor components of quarks
and
be
and
. These are the coordinates in the noncommutative internal structure. Thus we obtain
. (15)
where
is the complex conjugate of u and
is a non-zero c-number. The plus sign came from the fact that
and
are Grassmann numbers. If we change the phase of the first isospin component
in Equation (4) and redefine
, the constant
in Equation (15) should change. This is not allowed. Therefore, CP is violated in the doublet of
and
quarks in (9).
Now we consider the doublet
, where the superscript T means transposed. To satisfy the SU(2)L gauge symmetry, the matrix A must satisfy the following condition:
(16)
where
is a 4 × 4 unit matrix. For example, the matrix A is written follows:
(17)
where
is a real vector in Minkowski space and independent of space.
Thus, we can show CP violation in the doublet
at an infinite sublayer quark model [26] [27] [28] [29] [30]. We applied Equation (17) to CP violation in β-decay by considering the preon
and
where
and
in these references [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] and showed theself-energy removal and anomaly freedom.
5. Leptons and Gauge Bosons Composed of Quarks
and Anti-Quarks
Within the framework of electroweak theory, a quark current
at a quark level N to the weak vector bosons
and
as
or
(18)
This is shown in Figure 6
From the infinite sub-layer quark model at
, the above equation is a consequence of the following process:
(19)
The ultimate quark
and anti-quark
are structureless. Therefore, if the gauge bosons
and
are composite particles, then we obtain
and
. From the process
Figure 6.
and
graph.
(20)
which is mediated by the gauge boson
, we obtain
.
Thus the gauge bosons are composed of the ultimate particles
and
at an infinite sub-layer quark level as follows:
,
,
(21)
6. Composite Model of Leptons from the Ultimate Particles
and
The electron
and the electron-neutrino
are the first generation leptons.
If the electron is a composite particle and the neutrino is structureless, we can construct as
and
(22)
from
in Figure 6. Here aL is a chargeless particle with spin 1/2.
The muon
and the muon-neutrino
are the second generation leptons.
We can construct as
and
from the decay
. (23)
The tau
and the tau-neutrino
are the third generation leptons.
We can construct as
and
from the decay
. (24)
Thus, the electron, muon, tau and the corresponding neutrinos are composite particles.
7. Four Generations Composed of Quarks
and Anti-Quarks
In the standard model, we cannot give any limitations to the members of generations of quarks and leptons.
We can restrict the number of neutrinos to four from astrophysical considerations [31]. Now we can derive
The number of generations by applying the C(Charge),P(Parity), T(Time) transformation and the
gauge theory to the
and anti-quarks
. Thus we obtain
From these 16 doublets under SU(2), we can choose the following four doublets, which are invariant under
gauge transformation:
(25)
We have already derived four generations in the preons model [32]. It is natural to assume that the second, third and fourth generations are the excited states of the first generation. Therefore, quark
and anti-quarks
of the first generation are regarded as the ultimate particles in the universe.
8. Higgs Bosons Composed of Ultimate Quarks
and
The present universe is full of dark matter candidate particles
and
. Here we will show that the Higgs bosons are composed of dark matter candidate particles
and
quarks.
In the following, we shall consider the composite model of the Higgs bosons. Consider the weak isospin doublet
in the
gauge transformation. Then, the Lagrangian is invariant under the following infinitesimal gauge transformation:
(26)
where g is the coupling constant,
are parameters in
and
are generators of
. It was shown that the weak isospin doublet
does not give any limitations to the parameters
. Here the quark
has quantum numbers of weak isospin
, third component of weak isospin
, hypercharge
and electric charge
while the
quark has quantum numbers of
,
,
and
.
Now consider the right-handed quark
with quantum numbers of
and
. Under the infinitesimal gauge transformation, we obtain
(27)
(28)
where
is the coupling constant of
and
is the parameter in
. From
and
quarks, we construct the Higgs scalar
of
symmetry as follows:
(29)
where the electric charge of
is 0 and the electric charge of
is
. Under the gauge transformation of
and
in Equations (24) and (25), the Higgs scalar
transforms as
. (30)
This corresponds to the
gauge transformation of the field with
and
. Therefore, the Lagrangian describing the isospin doublet, which is constructed from
and
quarks, is invariant under the
gauge transformation.
In the following, we shall consider the following Higgs potential
to give the mass to gauge bosons and leptons:
(31)
where
is the mass parameter and
is the coupling constant.
and
. Then,
becomes a minimum when
. (32)
Putting
(33)
and defining the vacuum expectation value
of
as
(34)
The Higgs potential produces the spontaneous symmetry breakdown as well as the usual standard model. In this case, quantum numbers of
have
and
, so that the electric charge
.
Define the Higgs field
by
(35)
where h is the piece over and above the vacuum. Thus, the vacuum expectation value in Equations (32) and (33) gives the masses to gauge bosons, quarks and leptons.
9. Einstein’s Cosmological Constant Is Derived from the Higgs Potential
Einstein, in his heuristic derivation, introduced a cosmological constant
into his field equations [33].
(36)
where
is the Ricci tensor,
the metric tensor, R the scalar curvature,
Einstein’s gravitational constant and
the stress-energy tensor.
The constant of
is found to have a value of
(37)
where c is the speed of light and G Newton’s gravitational constant.
Here we summarize the Higgs mechanism using natural units of
.
The Lagrangian describing the electroweak interactions may be written in the form
(38)
where
and
are coupling constants of
and
, respectively,
are three gauge fields of
,
is the gauge field of
,
are
the generators of
. We omitted the leptons and quarks parts and described only the kinetic terms of gauge bosons and Higgs fields. The Higgs potential
is written as
. (39)
where
is the mass parameter and
is the coupling constant. Furthermore,
and
are defined as
. (40)
To consider the Higgs mechanism, the conditions of
and
are necessary. Then the Higgs potential
has a graph which looks like a champagne bottle and the minimum energy value is not at
. Defining the vacuum expectation value of
as
. (41)
then
becomes a minimum. Putting (39) into the third term on the right hand side of (38), we obtain
. (42)
Here we normalize the gauge field as
. (43)
From (40), we obtain the massive W bosons which have mass
, massive Z boson mass
and photon mass
as
(44)
In the following, we shall derive the cosmological constant by considering the gravitational potential instead of the Higgs potential.
Consider a general space-time manifold with metric
. The determinant of
is defined as
. (45)
Furthermore, we shall consider the space-time dependent field
via
. To match with the electroweak theory, we construct
from
doublet in the form
. (46)
Now we shall consider the following gravitational potential
:
. (47)
Then, the vacuum is defined as a minimum point of
.
The Lagrangian
in (38) is rewritten as
by replacing
by
and
by
. The Hilbert-Einstein Lagrangian in empty space (
) is written in the form
. (48)
Then, we obtain the total Lagrangian as
. (49)
It should be noted that after spontaneous symmetry is broken, the differential derivative of
should be replaced by the covariant derivative. Now we fix gauge properly by using three degrees freedom
gauge invariance. Then we can eliminate the three fields,
and
appearing in (46). Thus, we can write the vacuum expectation value as
. (50)
From this, we obtain
(51)
where
.
Thus, we can give the masses to the gauge bosons from the same way in Equations (41)-(44).
Now,
is expanded around
and we can write
(52)
where
is an expansion coefficient and has a real number value. Substituting (52) into (49), we shall consider only the terms contributing to the gravitational field equations. We don’t consider the term giving the masses to W bosons, Z boson and photon, and the interactions terms.
The gravitational potential
is written as
(53)
Here, the first order term of
vanishes, since
. Furthermore,
is expanded from (52) as
. (54)
The constant terms vanish at
and also
is included in every terms except the constant terms. If we consider the gravitational field, the covariant derivative of a scalar density
is defined by the relation
(55)
where
is the Levi-Civita connection. From direct calculations, we get
. (56)
This is obtained from the relation
. Thus, it is easily seen that the term
in the Lagrangian becomes zero. Finally, we obtain the following Lagrangian after spontaneous symmetry is broken,
. (57)
Suppose that the action of the gravitational field equation is given by
. (58)
The action principle then tells us that the variation of this action with respect to the metric
is zero, yielding
(59)
where
is the Einstein tensor in the form
. (60)
Finally we obtain the gravitational field equation in empty space
. (61)
Compared to (36), we obtain the cosmological constant
. (62)
Thus, we can derive the cosmological constant from spontaneous symmetry breaking.
10. Conclusions and Discussions
It is shown that there exists an infinite number of ultimate quarks
and
as the ultimate building blocks of the universe. This is derived from both an infinite sub-layer quark model and the Cantor set model. The existence of
and
quarks is confirmed by the electron-positron experiments in high energy physics.
It is also shown that CP is violated in only one generation to account for asymmetry of particles and anti-particles. The second, third and fourth generations are assumed to be the excitated states of the first generation. The fourth generation is derived from the CPT transformation and the
gaugetheory.
Leptons, quarks, gauge bosons and Higgs bosons are composed of
and
quarks. It is also shown that the Einstein’s cosmological constant is derived from the Higgs potential via spontaneous symmetry breaking and the masses are produced. Einstein, in his heuristic derivation, introduced a cosmological constant into his field equations to construct a staticmodel of the universe. From the modern cosmology, the positive cosmological constant indicates that the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate; further possibilities exist under the general heading dark matter and dark energy. Thus, recently, there has been great interest in dark matter, dark energy and gravitational waves.
For example, these problems are discussed in the framework of the extended gravity theories [34]. The dark matter problem is also discussed inhypershere world-universe model [35].
Especially, it is interesting to note that the magic and mysterious fine structure constant l/α = 137 was derived [36].
We proposed the possibility of generating the gravitational waves under the terrestrial conditions [37].
Dark matter is usually classified into two categories: baryonic and non-baryonic dark matter. The composition of baryonic dark matter is considered to be black holes, neutron stars, white dwarfs, very faint stars, and cloud of non-luminous gas.
However, if most of universe is made up of baryons, we encounter serious contradiction in explaining the observed structure formation [38]. The non-baryonic dark matter is divided into hot dark matter moving rapidly and cold dark matter moving slowly. There are a number of ideas about the non-baryonic dark matter, for example, neutrinos, axions and neutralino.
The composition of the dark matter has not yet been discovered. We proposed that the ultimate quarrks
and anti-quarks
are the cold dark matter candidates to comprise the universe, since they are absolutely stable and the non-baryonic particles with the baryon number zero.
Finally, it is concluded that a pair of an infinite number of
quarks and
quarks is produced in the first moments after the Big Bang and form the nucleons, and leave approximately right relic abundance to account for the observed non-baryonic dark matter.