Promoting the Progression of Expeditions and Implementing Policies to Enhance Sustainable Tourism Development in Tanzania ()
1. Introduction
The progression of expeditions lies on the fact that the context of tourist activities is changing with systematic appearance of new forms and ways of marketing the art of travelling. With rapid shift in tourists preferences and market trends, tourism and entrepreneurship are perceived to complement each other in realizing the goal of incremental wealth to maintain the industry as a dynamic process (Amerta, Sara, & Bagiada, 2018; Jelinčić, 2009) . Tourism industry is experiencing new varieties of distinct activities to form a useful background for sustainability manifested in many names e.g. new forms of non-consumptive tourism. Development of sustainable tourism works on the principle that, for nature conservation efforts to succeed, the destination residents must participate and benefit from tourism activities (Имангулова, Аскарова, Мазбаев, & Закирьянов, 2020) . Identifiable characteristic of a sustainable tourism include; community goal oriented, comprehensive, iterative and dynamic, integrative and renewable to incorporate principles that take into account the needs of future generations (Bassi & Martín, 2024) . It is sustainable when its development includes the participation of local population with reasonable economic returns and mutual respects since it can be used by individuals to give green credentials for personal gains. The trade-off between profits and sustainability leads to new challenges in relation to accorded benefits and priorities leading to the importance of having solid policies to promote sustainable tourism development (Adi, Utama, Budhi, & Purbadharmaja, 2017) .
Destination residents and their cultures have therefore gained recognition and factored into the tourist destination development equation. Cultural heritage and historical resources have been attracting tourists and sold by destination hosts who create commodities with cultural touch to gain income and maintain cultural values. As stated by Angelevska-Najdeska and Rakicevik (2012) , sustainable tourism is based on cultural and natural resources, its definition cuts across a wider scope of tangible and intangible attributes with inclusion of resident hosts who must be aware of economic motives and cultural values placed on their heritage through tourism since it is an area of conflict between different government bodies and resident hosts which leads to a gap between theoretical rhetoric and the realities at the level of local communities. The benefits accrued to local communities at the destinations have however been difficult to achieve because of numerous reasons. Recent studies have been questioning the position of new forms as mutually exclusive paradigms from traditional tourism, though they can form symbiotic relationships to reinforce each other (Ei & Karamanis, 2017) .
While some scholars argue that new forms of tourism should remain conceptually and spatially discrete, others argue they should be a functional entity rather than a subset of traditional form. Consequently, many researchers have begun to accept their legitimate as important concept with wider use of their definitions (Godwin & Santili, 2009) . Activities in new forms of tourism have enterprise ingredients comprised of traditions that are distinct enough for the tourists to admire with open interactions to various levels of governments. Although they provide alternative services that are not directly found within the resort, they exist only for specific tours and difficult to access their published data and their definitions are found in tautology and fail to address the complexity around the concept (Bassi & Martín, 2024) . Since sustainable tourism depends on quality of the environment and safety, governments at all levels have significant influence as managers of landscape, nature, villages, protected areas and suppliers of public utilities. As a result, countries with foreign exchange deficit can be rectified by the income from tourism. As argued by Brokaj (2014) , tourism related policies may be used to gloss over the socio-economic inequalities; as a result, it might be difficult to achieve the benefits accrued to destinations hosts. Sustainable tourism as an umbrella concept, embraces social integrity and economic, natural, cultural and financial resources on an equitable basis that contribute to unique touristic experiences (Freytag & Vietze, 2013) .
The basic role of government is to set minimum standards of business morality and aid to enforce the rules. As stated by Vieira, Rodrigues, Fernandes, and Pires (2016) , the government behaviour influences industrial performance, provide security and legal services with power grounded in perception on the industry for social and economic gains through multiplier effects. According to Bramwell and Lane (2010) , the involvement of government’s bodies is mainly for economic gains where tourism is perceived as a key industry to boost the ailing economy and may be used to gloss over the social inequalities. Some regulations are often aimed at larger companies while legislated support for local communities’ arts does not exist. The government has power which lies in its political and perception about the industry to provide sanctions, incentives, essential services, laws and overall land management and can take in tourism as a major industry to boost ailing economies.
Based on the historical context of Tanzania, tourism industry has passed through two phases i.e. pre-trade liberalization (socialist ideological framework) and post-trade liberalization (free market economy) with unsatisfactory services in the first phase. Through changes in macro-policies in 1980s, the industry has begun to realize its potentials with introduction of diversified products based on cultural and natural heritage which led to the rise of new forms of tourism (sustainable tourism). As an industry, tourism is the fastest growing sector and a model of economic reforms. Sustainable tourism has been developing quickly with optimistic predictions based on growth rates in mass tourism (Clarke, 2006; Yusuf & Ali, 2018) . Despite the potentials of these new forms as poverty alleviation tool for communities surrounding tourist destinations, its success depends on the prerequisite to reduce poverty using the weapon of tourism. Sustainable tourism practices are however faced by several obstacles emanating from contradictory policies and weak local institutions (URT, 2012) .
Purpose and significance
The purpose of this paper is to explore central features in promoting the progression of expeditions and implementing policies to enhance sustainable tourism development in Tanzania. The study cantered on tourist destination communities’ enterprises based on cultural and natural heritage and their supply chain undertakings at close proximity to famous national parks and conservation areas to identify the aspects that affect sustainable tourism development in Tanzania. This paper makes available information to support policy makers to make informed decisions concerning the direction, formulation to promote the progression of expeditions and implementing policies to enhance sustainable tourism development in Tanzania.
Assumptions and research questions
The underlying assumption is that the term ‘sustainable tourism’ is synonymous to ‘new forms of tourism’ that are manifested in many names e.g. community-based tourism, ecotourism, green tourism, responsible tourism since they focus on the welfare of local communities around major tourist destinations (Merge, 2007; Hughes, Weaver, & Pforr, 2015; Mowforth & Munt, 2023) . The study was guided by the following research questions: What social-economic factors affect promotion of expedition’ progression; Are there training programs that are aimed to promote expeditions’ progression; and what are the effects of government related policies on sustainable tourism development.
2. Methodology
A cross sectional survey design was used due to its ability to explain the prevailing conditions as perceived by the respondents and the studies are carried out once and is not repetitive in nature (Kothari, 2012) . The Northern circuit tourist destination is the study area since it is the main tourist destination in the country, offers assorted safari experiences in and around national parks, game reserves, conservation areas, and private concessions within the world famous Ngorongoro Crater, Olduvai Gorge (the cradle of mankind), Serengeti, Lake Manyara, Tarangire, Arusha, Kilimanjaro and Mkomazi National Parks together with host residents’ culture as a key resource for sustainable tourism that is manifested in many names due to availability of respondents who are able to provide relevant information.
2.1. Population and Sample Size Determination
Cultural tourism practitioners were the study population and the sampling frame was a list of all practitioners within the study area including the clients, tourist enterprise owners and nongovernmental organizations. Due to the shifting nature of tourism as a travelling business, it was difficult to have an exact study population. A sampling frame was drawn from Tanzania Association of Cultural Tourism Operators (TACTO), Tanzania Tourists Board (TTB), Local Government Authorities (LGAs) and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT) databases. Sampling procedure include; multi-stage sampling technique for selecting geographical locations, convenience sampling for available gathering relevant information, simple random sampling (SRS) to establish initiatives within the domain of sustainable tourism and purposive sampling in selection of actual respondents who could explain the real situation. Since tourist destination residents are vastly dispersed, snowball sampling identified other unknown respondents until when no more respondents were recognized.
The optimal sample size determination was based on the concept of acceptable standard error as it takes into account whether a difference between observed and expected frequencies has occurred due to chance. According to Satria and Wibowo (2021) , by disregarding other practical limitations, the sample size can be determined as; N = µ2/(SĀ)2 Where: N = Sample size; µ = Category standard deviation in population; S = Standard error and Ā = Category mean population. The sample size of 210 respondents was selected as summarized in Table 1.
2.2. Data Collection Method
Generally, this article is based on a questionnaire survey and takes the Northern Circuit Tourism as the research area to explore the problem existing in tourism destinations in Tanzania and briefly puts forward corresponding research suggestion to promote the sustainable development of Tanzania’s tourism industry. Collected data were classified, coded and edited to ensure consistency and accuracy.
2.3. Reliability and Validity
To enhance reliability and validity, a similar questionnaire was pre-tested on a sample of twenty-four (24) respondents who were not included in the actual sample to give comments and feedback. Similarly, different data sources and collection methods were used to minimize individual sterility of each method and the structured questionnaire was used to standardize responses. Leading questions were avoided to eliminate biasness. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was
Key: CBTPs = CTIs + CBs + Stand-alone ventures + Private Operators + NGOs. where: CBTPs = Community based tourism programmes; CTIs = Cultural tourism initiatives; CBs = Cultural bomas; NGOs = non-governmental organizations partnering communities; Private tour operators = Commercial operator who have a stake in the CBTP. Stand-alone shops = Small individual initiatives with local ingredients.
used to measure the internal consistency (reliability) since it tends to increase the inter-correlation among items measuring the same construct. Besides, validity measures what it is intended to be measured until the concept measures achieve theoretical and empirical meaning within the overall structure of a theory (Pallant, 2010) . To attain validity, the derived constructs for examining the outcomes were tested empirically. Triangulation technique also improved the validity of data collected since the shortfalls of one method were compensated by another method.
2.4. Data Analysis
A combination of qualitative and quantitative paradigms was used as the two methods are found to complement each other (Bell, Bryman, & Harley, 2022) . The qualitative pattern involved a free format of responses to get in-depth information, and descriptive based on personal feelings and attitudes. This technique allowed description of a studied phenomenon and free expression of respondents. The quantitative paradigm contains a factual basis and measurable data, depends on logic using analytical and mathematical deductions and analyses numerical data and statistical tests. It and is analysis based and depends on logic using analytical and mathematical deductions (Lune & Berg, 2017) . The examination of the relationship among variables utilized Constructs Pearson’s correlation coefficients and Reliability critical constructs. While qualitative paradigm discovered the themes and relationships of the same level and the quantitative approach validated those themes and relationships in the same (Black, 2023) . A list of statements which were prepared were analysed using percentages, mean scores (MS), standard deviations (SDE), Constructs Pearson’s correlation coefficients, and reliability critical constructs (Cronbach alpha).
2.5. Ethical Consideration
Apart from the informed consent approach, tourism ethics were also taken into consideration during the intervention process. According to Mowforth and Munt (2015) , tourism ethics can be explained by the models that explain patterns of tourist behaviour in the context of ideology including; work ethics, conservation ethics and leisure ethics. As argued by Lansing and Vries (2007) , while work ethics narrates the pursuit of moral rectitude, leisure ethics reflect the behaviour of tourists and their impact to communities and conservation ethics provide the public awareness and the balance between environment, cultural sensitivity and economic power.
3. Findings
Based on the nature of study, the findings were established from descriptives statistics, Constructs Pearson’s correlation coefficients and reliability critical constructs (Cronbach alpha) analyses. The study adopted the twenty-two (22) statements that are similar to those initially developed by Visser (2002) in her PhD thesis at Pretoria University on Constraints facing tourism entrepreneurs in South in Gauteng and Mpumalanga Province. Twenty-two (22) statements (S) from the questionnaire were presented for analysis in Table 2.
As seen in Table 2, S3. ‘Destination hosts’ benefit from tourism operations in the Northern circuit tourist destination” was rated highest with a mean score (MS = 4.001) and standard deviation (SDE = 0.908), followed by S19 that, there exist poor relations between protected areas (PAs) authorities and new forms’ initiatives (MS = 3.992) and (SDE = 0.819). In the same way S14, that “too many fees are charged for sustainable tourism practices” was rated the lowest, with a (MS = 1.618) and (SDE = 0.949). Some respondents made a few interesting remarks relating to S2, S5 and S9. S2 stated, there are effective supporting services and organizations in Arusha, with MS = 3.357) and SDE = 1.023) that, “these are just mere statements to polish unseen actions”. S5 stated that, ‘Government policies on sustainable tourism development are coherent’ with (MS = 2.701) and (SDE = 0.9400 that, “how is it coherent if the policy is not known?” S9 that ‘The tourism structures are effective in Tanzania’ with (MS = 3.082) and (SDE = 1.0280) that “It is not effective at all; how can the structures be effective to local residents?’ In regard to S7 that, “the prices for new forms of tourism are too high” was however dropped due to low reliability. Correlation coefficients of the critical constructs were carried out to identify the magnitude of relationships among constructs in Table 3.
The Pearson’s correlation coefficient varies from a range of +1 to −1 i.e. a relationship existed and the absence of the relationship is expressed by a coefficient example, expressed that there is a relationship between Construct 4 (demand)
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Table 2. Descriptive statistics: Policies statements in relation to new forms of tourism.
Key: SD: Strongly Disagree; D: Disagree; I: Indifferent; A: Agree; SA: Strongly Agree; M: Mean; SDE: Standard Deviation. (SD > 1 indicates a significant difference).
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Table 3. Constructs Pearson’s correlation coefficients.
which is approximately zero. That is, the correlation coefficient of 0.121, for and Construct 2 (policies). From Table 3, there were positive Pearson’s correlation coefficient that signifies an existent of related among constructs. Equally, Cronbach’s alpha has a theoretical relation with factor analysis expressed as a function of the parameters of the hierarchical analyses which allows for a general factor that is common to all of the items of a measure (Kothari, 2012) . Based on 22 statements within the responses, reliability analysis was carried out. The results of reliability tested were presented in Table 4.
A ‘construct’ is an idea specifically produced for a given research or theory-building purpose. To test the reliability of identified critical construct, Table Large MNEs dominate Tourism in Tanzania 2 shows that the reliability coefficients (Cronbach alpha) are higher than 0.39 except for construct 5 (education & training) and construct 6 (wildlife conflicts). The Cronbach alpha is significant for Construct 2 (government policies) with a Cronbach alpha of 0.767.S7 was dropped due to its unreliability nature (eigenvalue < 1.00).
3.1. Economic Factors
The thriving economic factors engage tourist destination hosts and communities in planning process and implementation of excursions, empowers communities and enhance equitable distribution of economic benefits. Initiatives of destination hosts can include homestays, cultural performances, and local craft markets just to mention few (Jelinčić, 2009) . The statements relating to economy (Construct 1 in Table 4) include:
S1: -Tanzania socio-economy is favorable for new forms of tourism development.
S3: -‘Destination hosts’ benefit from tourism operations in Tanzania.
S8: -New forms of tourism are owned by few individuals.
S10: -Large MNEs dominate Tourism in Tanzania.
Economic factors have a low Cronbach alpha of 0.418 denoting the economy has no significant influence on new forms of tourism development (not ≥ 0.7). The growth or decline in GNP, interest rates, inflation and exchange rates present both opportunities and threats but the insights the market size as essential determinant and provide more diversified services for higher standard of
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Table 4. Reliability critical constructs (Cronbach alpha).
living for local residents. There are many cases where governments have focused on immediate and rapid actions for short run revenue earnings at the expense of local communities.
While in Kenya for example, the scarce water which was once used by the Samburu communities (close to Shaba Reserve) was diverted to fill the swimming pool of the Sarova Hotel (Mowforth & Munt, 2015) , in South Africa, tourism effort is often directed towards large multinational tourism operators and exclude domestic tourism initiatives which led to limited employment opportunities in famous destinations like Kruger National Park and Victoria Waterfront (Snijders, 2012) .
Similarly, in Israel, national tourism development plans have been drawn up where the government identifies which tourism sectors will be developed and the appropriate growth rate and provides the capital required for that expansion (Saarinen & Gill, 2018) , in India, several states have created tourism development corporations for the purpose of encouraging tourism development and investment at local level (IGNOU, 2018) and in Nepal, the Chhetri people were moved from their lands to give way for Lake Rara National Par’.
Most respondents failed to balance between economic and cultural motives. Whilst motivations other than profit making are compatible with the notion of sustainability, economic benefits should be considered in line with cultural workability. Many ventures are found to be possessed and benefited by a few individuals with few benefits to local communities. Nevertheless, some youths and women perform cultural dances and sell crafts, these activities provide a smaller supplement to participants few employees enter into lower wages leading to doubts whether new forms of tourism practices are economically feasible (Churugsa, Alison, & David, 2007; Innocent, 2021) . Transparency and good communication are qualifications that do not match the practice, though income from new forms of tourism provides an array of communal and individual benefits.
3.2. Government Policies
The term policy can be defined as a predetermined course of action established to guide the performance of work towards accepted objectives or serve as specific guidelines for people as they make decisions, philosophies and values as to how people should be managed. They derive principles upon which people expected to act and reflect the decisions made by various agencies and commissions, parliamentary outcomes, legislation and court judgements (Vieira, Rodrigues, Fernandes, & Pires, 2016) . Policies reflect the formal rules, informal constraints and the enforcement characteristics of institutions and other industrial policies in tourism are prone to political caption and corruption levelled against other areas and do not provide a clear case concerning the new form of tourism.
The government represents people who have basic powers to influence the policy implementation, the emphasis on public—private partnership in which the latter identifies opportunities and constraints and the former generate policy initiative to build value chains for smooth performance (Kinyondo, & Pelizzo, 2015) . As a public interest protector, policy decisions should reflect a desire and interests of all stakeholders rather than the sectional interests of the industry, stimulate tourism through financial incentives, research, development projects, own and operate owned business though entrepreneurial climate is changing with less government intervention towards public-private partnership, revalorize the concept of capital by subsidizing part of invested costs into social costs (Birkić, Pilija, & Šebrek, 2014) . Constructs relating to policies were captured to include:
S5: -Government policies on new forms of tourism are coherent.
S11: -The LGAs support the new forms of tourism in Tanzania.
S12: -Sectoral policies impede new forms of tourism performance in Tanzania.
S13: -New forms of tourism are planned by the Ministry of Tourism.
S9: -The tourism structures are effective in Tanzania.
S14: -Too many fees are charged for new forms of tourism.
S16: -Tourism policies in Tanzania favour new forms of tourism activities.
Government policies were found to have a high Cronbach alpha of = 0.767, and correlation coefficient of 0.221 at p = 0.01, implying the existing policies influence the performance of new forms of tourism. As stated by Korstanje (2021) , that, the relationship between new forms of tourism, policies and legal framework is a multifaceted construct. 58% of respondents indicated the government to focus too much on affirmative actions for economic gains, 56% showed lack of positive implementation by the government, 36% indicated the government lacks the ability to enforce local regulations. Thus, good governance at different levels matter for increased accountability and the practices at the village level but differ from stipulations within various policies.
The National Tourism Development Policy (1991) provide overall objectives and strategies for sustainable tourism development in Tanzania, though do not indicate specific efforts needed to empower local communities’ involvement in tourism. Entrepreneurs often are willing to accept personal or financial risk to pursue opportunities as opposed to “political entrepreneurs” who uses political influences to gain income through subsidies, protectionism, government-granted monopoly or contract (Macha & Kimaro, 2019) . Local people operate without special favors from the government but depend on fair policies and a favorable legal framework. However, the policy is too old and may not carter for the desires of new forms of tourism.
3.3. Wildlife Policies and Human Co-Existence
The wildlife policy is a countrywide organized policy to encourage biological conservation and develop wildlife resources for sustainable consumption in a fair sharing of benefits (Hughes et al., 2015) . The Wildlife Policy (1998), broadened the scope of interpretation to allow local communities participation in areas bordering the protected areas that are the major tourist attraction and upsurge the sector’s contribution to GDP. Unlike the old Wildlife Conservation Act (WCA, 1974) that provided few opportunities for communities to generate income but is centred to game-controlled areas (GCAs) as they overlap the demarcated village lands, WCA was a foundation for wildlife management areas (Nelson, Nshala, & Rodgers, 2007) creation that allowed natives to access wildlife resources outside protected areas and a portion of revenue from tourism goes to communities in exchange for their used land. The WMA (2002) however, provides few opportunities for local communities’ participation and relatively older to be implemented in new forms of tourism (Munishi, 2006; Eiseman, 2018) .
Wildlife-human coexistence conflicts generally emanate from the government policies, laws and regulations that essentially define for the society as a whole, which actions are permissible and which are not and establishes the minimum standards of behaviour and conduct (Snijders, 2012) . The statements relating to wildlife conflicts in Table 2 include:
S18: -The wildlife policy is favourable for new forms of tourism operations.
S19: -There exist poor relations between PAs and new forms of tourism.
S20: -There exists resource competition between wildlife & human near PAs.
The coefficient correlation between wildlife-human coexistence to be 0.087 at p = 0.01 and the reliability test showed Cronbach alpha of −0.200 implying existence of negative effects between the construct. These findings are similar to those of the knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) survey by Naabia (2006) around Tarangire and Manyara National Parks concerning the benefits and challenges arising from human and wildlife coexistence in the area. Villages bordering national park were suffering due to wildlife migration within game-controlled areas (GCAs). The conflicts emanate from the risk of predators, sharing of scarce resources, transmission of diseases from wildlife to human beings which amplifies poverty among local communities.
According to Coşkun et al. (2020) , initiatives in new forms of tourism initiatives often encounter legal and conflicting interests with the protected areas (PAs) and local government authorities (LGAs) on trading off the balance between wildlife conservation and human economic activities. In South Africa, most national parks are fenced, but some are being removed to link the PAs across national boundaries leading to intensified conflicts between wildlife and human co-existence Although the community based natural resources management (CBNRM) gives rights to local communities over wildlife and tourism resources, they are failing due to a wide range of factors. In Zimbabwe for example, often the wildlife roam outside the PAs in adjacent villages and cause nuisance to the people (Chapungu, 2013) . Conflicts arising from human-wildlife coexistence, new forms of tourism have not been properly factored into traditional ownership, although the law grants rights through village registration, there exist conflicting interests among different levels of government to the extent of questioning whether village titles have legal implications.
3.4. SMEs Development Policy
The concept of ‘development’ embraces wider concerns of life and desirable changes depending on the objectives advocated. Since micro and small tourism enterprises fall under SMEs development policies, they have been facing a number of problems due to persistent culture that has not recognized the value of entrepreneurial initiative in improving the lives of local people (Ruhanen, 2013) . Adoptive teamwork between government bodies, destination residents, tour operators, NGOs, and other key stakeholders to develop inclusive strategies for sustainable tourism development can ensure that the wishes and interests of all parties are taken into account. Costly legal regulatory and administrative environment also push SMEs to greater disadvantage.
3.5. Social Policies
Social policy is concerned with the ways societies across the world meet human needs for security, education, work, health and wellbeing. It addresses how states and societies respond to global challenges of social, demographic, economic change, poverty, migration and globalization (Sheivens, 2003) .
From Table 1, the statements evaluated relating to social factors includes:
S2: -There are effective supporting services and organisations.
S15: -Safety and security affect the performance of new forms of tourism.
S17: -There exist opportunities for new forms of tourism to establish partnership.
S21: -The spread of diseases negatively affects new forms of in Tanzania.
According to Mowforth and Munt (2015) , tourism is one of the appendage industries that takes place in the context of inequality of wealth and a transmitter of power relationship. Accommodating tourists in homes allows observing the practiced life-styles, moral behavior needs to be reinforced toward positive images of the destination. To lessen commodification challenges, opportunities arising from tourists’ demand should be in appropriate culturally structured to give more rectitude.
In the context of socially construed factors, the Cronbach alpha of 0.399 with correlation coefficients of 0.169 at p = 0.01, implying a positive correlation between social factors and existing policies. Social forces include societal trends, traditions, values, consumer psychology and society’s expectations of a tourism venture. There is however a plethora of codes of conduct or codes of ethics to guide a socially responsible business which are adopted within a sector or specific geographical area (Kotler, 2012) . The nature of the industry requires that members participating in new forms of tourism should adopt a ‘can do’ attitude in collaboration with development partners if they are to survive and grow.
3.6. Tourist Safety and Support Services
Safety is a principal factor in any tourist destination. The past global terrorism attacks had profound effects on tourism as it mostly aimed to the western citizens that are tourists generating countries. 48% of the clients rated security and safety as low, 33% rated it as high and 19% were indifferent. In terms of visitors’ safety in local communities’ areas, Tanzania is shown to be a safer destination compared to neighboring countries. Factors that hamper safety and security as other countries in Africa include petty crimes and slow responsive actions which impinge credibility and ultimately performance.
Lack of insurance cover against risk is shown to be one of the reasons given by many respondents. The anti-terror insurance cover is not attractive due to its high cost based on the perceived risk in East Africa, tariffs are based on individuals while different destinations and locations have different risk factors. Since local people do not have institutional capabilities, there is a need for development partners to support the development of sustainable or new forms of tourism. While formal private sector possesses sound business acumen and drive, local communities are less educated with low exposure. As argued by Laitamaki, Hechavarría, Tada, Liu, Setyady, Vatcharasoontorn, and Zheng (2016) , non-governmental organisations (NGOs) can provide a range of services e.g. capacity building, arbitration for conflict resolution, access to capital and facilitation of negotiation between local communities and governments.
3.7. Demand for Sustainable Tourism, Integrated Efforts and Prices
Changes in tourists’ expectations and values are becoming the main drivers of the pace and direction of tourism development. In the leisure market, tourists are becoming less satisfied with traditional holiday packages and traditional or mass tourism and are being replaced by new forms of tourism. New tourists have more experience, more quality conscious, environmentally aware, more independent and harder to satisfy using traditional tourism commodities (Ogweno, 2021) . The quality and value for money are thus vital for new forms of tourism performance. Constructs relating to demand were summarized in the following statements:
S6: -Seasonality affects new form of tourism performance.
S4: -Insufficient demand for new form’s services affects their performance.
The correlation coefficient of 0.121 between demand and policies indicates that the reliability critical constructs (Cronbach alpha) for demand was 0.511, implying that there exists a positive correlation between the two constructs. Tourism demand is a two-pronged approach, i.e., both the government and the service providers have a role to play to create demand. Tourist destination communities need the effective role of the government if they are to perform. As argued by Dzhandzhugazova, Dracheva, Kosolapov, Savinkina, and Sukhanovskiy (2019) , the traditional approaches forms of tourism have looked at the issues of supply and demand largely from the demand side, which has led to the construction of new forms of tourism based on the regime of cultures consumed by the tourists and packed by the industry.
Performance of new forms of tourism initiative depends on integrated efforts, support of government policies, smooth operations from different institutions, economic diplomacy commitment and international cooperation (Reid, Nkedianye, Said, Kaelo, Neselle, Makui, & Clark, 2016) . Although Tanzania has acquired membership of various international organizations, such as the World Tourism Organization (WTO), the Regional Tourism Organization of Southern Africa (RETOSA), the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC), the African Travel Association (ATA), the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), the East African Community (EAC) and formerly a member of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), the present bilateral and multilateral relations have not been fully capitalized on development of new forms of tourism.
The rise of globalization and the information society presents a new set of challenges at the interface between technological innovation and growth of new forms of tourism (Sæþórsdóttir & Hall, 2019; Wray, Dredge, Cox, Buultjens, Hollick, Lee, Pearlman, & Lacroix, 2010) . A growing body of evidence indicates that a more holistic and innovative strategy leads to higher levels of compliance. 55% of the responses indicated that taxes and other fees paid are high, 35% rated as fair and 10% rated as low implying service prices from different bodies of the government are high and unprofitable for the growth of new forms. Consequently, poor infrastructures, increasing fuel prices, the informal contributions charged by service providers and seasonality have negative impacts on success and growth. The system of pricing cultural products was found to be unrealistic and difficult to ascertain whether or not the contribution of publicity and its associated costs would have any impact on the inflow of tourists who are searching for authentic experience rom new mode of tourism.
In general, sustainable tourism demand tourists are motivated by diverse simultaneous substances, tailor made products and services to be offered and from identified new niches. Factors such as gender, age and tourists’ countries of origin need to be identified for publicity. Although seasonality and perishability tend to cause demand fluctuations around the fixed supply capacity, destination residents (local entrepreneurs) have to focus on a small segment by considering the source of tourists, behavior and attitudes. On the other hand, Collaborative networking creates alliances with people, institutions and organizations and allowing experience sharing of experiences, provide constructive ways of dealing with challenges and a key driver for successful performance.
3.8. Education and Training
Training emanates from the idea of investing in people to promote productive work-places by addressing human dimension and competitiveness with a focus on the level of understanding of the local people. As stated by Streimikiene, Svagzdiene, Jasinskas, and Simanavicius (2021) , sustainable tourism proposition focuses on educational agendas for tourists to raise awareness about the importance of practices in new forms of tourism to guided tours by well-informed local guides to share information concerning local ecosystems, wildlife conservation efforts and cultural heritage. The construct related to education and training was found in the statement below:
S22: -There are no training opportunities for owners of initiatives if new forms.
The correlation coefficient between education/training and policies is 0.219 at p = 0.01, education and training had a Cronbach alpha of −0.107, implying there exists positive correlation between the constructs, though the reliability test indicate the opposite direction. Impliedly, most owners of new forms of tourism lack adequate professional education, periodic training and skills to supplement their indigenous knowledge and other abilities. New form of tourism is seen as a means to achieve learning, training and maintaining on going contacts with clients for transmitting cultural knowledge between generations and boost hope and self-esteem accorded by tourism. Since tourist destination hosts are characterized by low education, less developed depend on indigenous knowledge which is essentially tacit, untapped, undocumented and faces extinction from one generation to another with inability to develop into local enterprise, training programs has to focus on specialized services and support to complement indigenous knowledge to be able to act professionally in order to provide the expected level of cultural services .Tanzania is endowed with a rich natural resource base but the challenge lies in the ability to transform efficiently into goods and services that can be availed to the market at competitive prices. The owners of new forms of tourism have lower demand for business development services, research and development (R&D), counselling and do not appreciate the importance of education due to cost considerations and lack of knowledge in regard to benefits (Eiseman, 2018) .
4. Conclusion
Sustainable tourism (new forms or non-consumptive tourism) lies on the expansion of income sources and benefits accrued to local communities. Development of sustainable tourism works on the principle that, for nature conservation efforts as a source for tourism to succeed, destination residents must be active participants in tourism activities. Tanzania is rich in natural and cultural resources to provide unique experiences to tourists; however, tourist destination hosts have not been able to benefit from tourism due to in-adequate and contradicting policies across sectors. Most respondents failed to balance between economic and cultural motives. Whilst motivations other than profit making are compatible with the notion of sustainability, economic benefits should be considered in line with cultural workability.
Government as a public interest protector, policy decisions should stimulate tourism through financial incentives, tourism development projects through entrepreneurial climate with less government intervention towards public-private partnership, subsidize part of invested costs into social costs and help to create global networks, access important information to promote the progression of expeditions and implement policies and capture international markets to boost sustainable tourism development in Tanzania. Consequently, Wildlife-human coexistence conflicts originate from the risk of predators, sharing of scarce resources, and transmission of diseases from wildlife to human beings in return amplifies poverty among tourist destination hosts. Moreover, the SMEs development policies are found to be inadequate as it does not recognize the value of entrepreneurial initiative in improving the lives of local communities.
Regarding tourist safety and security, Tanzania is shown to be a safer destination compared to neighboring countries, like other African Countries, petty crimes and slow responsive actions impinge credibility and ultimately sustainable tourism practices. Pricing system in cultural products was unrealistic and difficult to ascertain whether or not the contribution of publicity has any impact on the inflow of tourists who are searching for authentic experience from new forms of tourism. Most owners of new forms of tourism ventures lacked adequate professional education, periodic training and skills to supplement their indigenous knowledge.
5. Policy Implication
There is a need to articulate implementable policies to preserve the natural beauty by promoting eco-friendly travel options, and encourage tourists to respect host’s culture and traditions through training campaigns by partnering with other tourism stakeholders. To promote the progression of expeditions, the Ministry of National Resources and Tourism (MNRT), Tanzania Tourist Board (TTB) and development partners need to make available restricted policies to guarantee inclusion of destination hosts in tourism development equation. To ensure the safety and health of visitors, clear and easily implementable policies have to be well-known within national, regional and local settings. MNRT and the police force have to guarantee safety at village levels with immediate response to combat petty crimes.
To ensure effective participation of local communities, the existing policies should illuminate the whole rather than a sectional interest of the industry. The policies should be clear, coherent and facilitated by good governance to sustain resources, indigenous rights and partnership structures. Policies for proper diversification of cultural products to benefit residents at close proximity to tourism destination need to be ratified. It is acknowledged that further research studies are required to be done by integrating both tacit (indigenous) and explicit (formal) knowledge toward entrepreneurial skills for income generation and environmental conservation.