Introducing Personality Psychology in Business: Insights & Implications from a Textual Analysis ()
1. Introduction
Perspectives influence understandings, decisions, and actions (Falk & Scholz, 2018) . Organizationally, perspectives can influence perceptions of power and organizational sentiment (Jackson et al., 2022) . As a young adult looking into the future of the corporate world, there are a multitude of viewpoints and perspectives given that can influence one’s thoughts on a company (Virvilaitė & Jucaityte, 2008) . Today, businesses are looking to be more inclusive and have a diversity of personnel to assist in their culture (Lozano & Escrich, 2017) . There are variations of personalities within a team that can help optimize an organization’s dynamic. It is essential that managers, employees, and executives have an aligned mindset that includes the involvement of personalities (Bozionelos, 2004) . Regarding this research, it was found that studying the diversity of personalities in a business adds value to organizations.
Exploring the diversity of personalities can provide information for leadership development. Everyone is unique in their ability to learn and lead in scenarios (Lozano & Escrich, 2017) . Leaders need to adapt to styles that best suit the individuals they manage (Wang et al., 2017) . Additionally, it is important for the employees to recognize the leadership style that their manager possesses (Zimmermann et al., 2001) . Recognizing the personality traits can assist in effective leadership and company success. It is key to note that individuals may include a combination of leadership styles that can be based on the situation. Having a variety of styles can lead to innovation and new goals that an organization would otherwise not have been able to establish. Knowing how to adapt to these traits of team members can contribute to organizational success.
Diverse personalities will assist organizational success and contribute to employee satisfaction (Lozano & Escrich, 2017) . People will feel valued and engaged in their work environment while being aligned with the corporate culture. Lack of diverse personalities can lead to stagnant innovation and absence of motivation (Beyerlein et al., 2006) . The inclusion of diversity is important for performance management (Lozano & Escrich, 2017) . By recognizing an individual’s skill set, reflected in their personality, will assist the company in recognizing the adequate goals for specific employees. This will involve knowing one’s strengths and weaknesses before planning a strategy best suited for the individual.
On the contrary, an assorted number of personalities may result in conflict (Friedman et al., 2000) . Studying these differences as a manger can allow one to propose strategies for conflict resolution and ways to have an inclusive work environment. This is a common scenario that employers routinely encounter. Various personalities can result from differences in communication styles, work preferences, values, and culture dynamics (Wilde, 2010) . Harnessing these differences effectively can produce organizational benefit. Enabling team members to understand one another with their strengths and weaknesses will help address conflicts within the team. Further, promoting cultural awareness and sensitivity to topics can help teams respect diversity. Establishing compromises in work processes accommodates open communication and conflict resolution throughout an organization.
As the business world continues to evolve, there have been legal and ethical considerations in the corporate setting that companies benefit from implementing. One of these is cultivating a commitment to establishing a diverse workforce. Companies have learned that ensuring fair treatment by eliminating discrimination promotes the company’s healthy work environment (Jones et al., 2017) . Depending on the scenario, if an organization does not follow the legal guidelines set by the government, it can result in lawsuits, fines, and other consequences that will damage their reputation (Zacharias, 2008) . Being aware of the policies and training required for diversity is a key component for establishing inclusion within organizations. Research in personality psychology can inform this understanding.
Personalities among employees can be a principal factor in the success of an individual, that can lead to having tailored communication strategies (Davis, 2005) . Some individuals may believe in direct communication, while others have a better understanding of collaborative communication. This mix of personalities can enhance the impact employees have on a company and their experiences in an organization. By understanding and managing the diversity of personalities, an individual can influence the positive outlook that a company may acquire. Employees play a role in the overall success of a company (Meyerson & Dewettinck, 2012) . The behaviors and attitudes displayed by those around them can produce either a positive or negative reputation. The adoption of diversity within organizations reflects and inspires greater societal recognition of the importance and benefit derived through a commitment to authenticity (Hannerz, 2010) and autonomy (Jackson, 2022) .
Throughout this research, it is important to note that not all businesses are aware of or committed to the importance of diversity in personalities in the workplace. Organizations that prioritize the engagement and development of their employees often will experience positives outcomes. This can include enhanced productivity, innovation, creativity, team building, sustainability, and leadership. Those that have confidence in unlocking the potential of diverse personalities will generate an improved organization. This study examined the influences personalities have on corporate companies and overall individual development. This study contains a survey of literature, method, results, and conclusion section. The survey of literature is presented next.
2. Survey of Literature
Understanding the complex interaction between personality traits, organizational dynamics, and diversity within businesses and organizations is crucial for fostering a productive work environment (Kessels & Keursten, 2002) . This survey of literature explores various connections among these elements, shedding light on their implications for individual behavior, team dynamics, and organizational success. At its core, the study of personality psychology offers perceptions into the stable patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that shape individuals’ responses to situational demands (Hogan et al., 1997) . By investigating personality traits such as extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, agreeableness, and emotional stability, researchers can detect how these characteristics influence leadership styles, decision-making processes, and interpersonal relationships within business settings (Roccas et al., 2002) . Moreover, integrating insights from business organizational theory improves our understanding of how organizational structures, cultures, and processes interact with individual differences to shape group dynamics and organizational outcomes. Exploring concepts such as organizational culture, leadership styles, power dynamics, and decision-making frameworks provides a framework for understanding the complexities of organizational behavior. Furthermore, considering diversity in the dimensions of demographics, cultural, cognition, and experience adds another layer of richness to this discussion. Recognizing the value of diverse perspectives, backgrounds, and talents not only fosters innovation and creativity but also enhances organizational resilience and adaptability in an increasingly globalized and interconnected world (Berger & Huntington, 2002) . As such, this survey of literature seeks to combine existing research and highlight its relevance to businesses seeking to leverage personality insights and diversity endeavors to optimize performance, foster inclusivity, and achieve sustainable growth in a dynamic marketplace.
2.1. Personality Psychology
Personality psychology is a field that encompasses a range of theories, concepts, and research methodologies aimed at understanding the stable patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that characterize individuals (Hogan et al., 1997) . Over the years, researchers have investigated various aspects of personality, contributing to our understanding of human nature and its implications for different domains of life, including interpersonal relationships, academic achievement, mental health, and career success (Adler, 2013) . In this discussion, three key areas of research within personality psychology will be explored: trait theory, psychodynamic theory, and social-cognitive theory.
Trait theory represents one of the foundational approaches to understanding personality. This perspective suggests that individuals possess consistent patterns of behavior across different situations, which can be described and measured using a set of fundamental traits (Costa & McCrae, 1998) . Among the most influential trait models is the Five-Factor Model (FFM), also known as the Big Five personality traits: extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. Research on the Big Five has provided valuable insights into the structure of personality and its implications for various aspects of life (Curtis et al., 2015) .
Extraversion is characterized by sociability, assertiveness, and enthusiasm (Pavot et al., 1990) . Individuals high in extraversion tend to seek out social interactions, enjoy being the center of attention, and exhibit high levels of positive emotionality. Research has consistently shown that extraversion is associated with various positive outcomes, including higher levels of subjective well-being, greater social support, and better job performance (Watson & Clark, 1997) . Extraverts are often viewed as charismatic leaders who excel in roles that require networking, persuasion, and public speaking.
On the other hand, neuroticism reflects tendencies toward negative emotionality, such as anxiety, depression, and vulnerability to stress. Individuals high in neuroticism are more prone to experiencing negative emotions and are less skilled at coping with stressors (Barlow et al., 2014) . Research has linked neuroticism to a range of unfavorable outcomes, including poorer mental health, lower job satisfaction, and higher rates of being absent. Neuroticism is closely linked to the Safety-Oriented Personality Style (Bickersteth et al., 2018) . Moderate levels of neuroticism can serve as a motivational force, prompting individuals to take precautions and avoid potential risks.
Agreeableness encompasses traits such as warmth, kindness, and cooperation. Individuals high in agreeableness are empathetic, compassionate, and considerate of others’ feelings. They value relationships and prioritize selfless behaviors. Research has shown that agreeableness is associated with higher levels of interpersonal harmony, better teamwork, and greater organizational citizenship behaviors (Graziano & Eisenberg, 1997) . Agreeable individuals are often perceived as trustworthy and cooperative team members who contribute to a positive organizational climate.
Conscientiousness refers to traits related to self-discipline, organization, and goal-directed behavior. Individuals high in conscientiousness are diligent, reliable, and achievement oriented. They set high standards for themselves and strive to meet their goals through careful planning and persistence. Research has consistently demonstrated that conscientiousness predicts academic and occupational success (Roberts et al., 2009) . Conscientious individuals excel in roles that require attention to detail, time management, and following rules and procedures.
Openness to experience encompasses traits such as curiosity, imagination, and creativity. Individuals high in openness are intellectually curious, open-minded, and receptive to new ideas and experiences. They enjoy exploring incentives and engaging in abstract thinking. Research has linked openness to various indicators of cognitive and creative abilities, as well as adaptive responses to change (Dollinger & Orf, 1991) . Open individuals are often drawn to artistic pursuits, cultural exploration, and nontraditional career paths.
While trait theory focuses on identifying and measuring stable personality traits, psychodynamic theory delves into the subconscious dynamics that shape personality development and behavior (Guntrip, 2018) . Developed by Sigmund Freud, psychodynamic theory emphasizes the role of early childhood experiences, subconscious conflicts, and defense mechanisms in shaping personality. According to Freud, personality is structured into three levels of awareness: the conscious, the preconscious, and the subconscious (Westen, 1998) . The subconscious contains restrained thoughts, feelings, and memories that influence behavior in subtle ways.
One of the key concepts in psychodynamic theory is the notion of personality structure, which consists of three components: the id, the ego, and the superego (Westen). The id operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of instinctual drives, such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire. The ego, on the other hand, operates on the reality principle, mediating between the demands of the id, the constraints of reality, and the moral standards of the superego. Finally, the superego represents the incorporated moral standards and values instilled by society and authority figures.
Defense mechanisms are another aspect of psychodynamic theory, serving to protect the individual from anxiety and psychological distress. Examples of defense mechanisms include restraint, denial, projection, displacement, and rationalization (Cramer, 2015) . These mechanisms operate subconsciously and often manifest in ineffective behaviors or symptoms, such as phobias, obsessions, and compulsions. By gaining insight into subconscious conflicts and defense mechanisms, individuals can better understand the root causes of their psychological distress and work towards resolving underlying issues.
Research within the psychodynamic tradition has explored various aspects of personality development, attachment dynamics, and healing processes (Borden, 2009) . Psychodynamic therapy, also known as psychoanalysis, aims to uncover subconscious conflicts and unresolved issues through techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and interpretation of relocation and resistance. While psychodynamic theory has faced criticism for its lack of validation and reliance on interpretations, it continues to influence clinical practice and therapeutic approaches.
Social-cognitive theory represents a synthesis of cognitive and behavioral principles with an emphasis on the social context of learning and behavior. Developed by Bandura (2001) , social-cognitive theory posits that personality is shaped through a corresponding interaction between cognitive processes, behavioral patterns, and environmental influences. Unlike traditional behaviorism, which emphasizes the role of external reinforcement, social-cognitive theory emphasizes the role of cognitive factors, such as beliefs, expectations, and self-efficacy, in negotiating the relationship between environmental and behavioral responses.
One of the key concepts in social-cognitive theory is self-efficacy, which refers to individuals’ beliefs in their ability to successfully perform specific tasks and achieve desired outcomes (Bandura, 2001) . Self-efficacy beliefs influence motivation, effort disbursement, and persistence in the face of challenges. Research has shown that individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to set challenging goals, exert greater effort, and persevere in the face of obstacles, leading to higher levels of achievement and well-being.
Another concept in social-cognitive theory is observational learning, which occurs through the process of modeling. Individuals learn by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of those behaviors (Bandura, 2008) . Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children exposed to aggressive models were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviors, highlighting the role of observational learning in shaping behavior. Observational learning occurs most effectively when the model is perceived as competent and rewarded for their behavior.
Additionally, social-cognitive theory emphasizes the role of cognitive processes, such as attention, interpretation, and memory, in mediating the effects of environmental stimuli on behavior (Luszczynska & Schwarzer, 2015) . Individuals selectively attend to and process information that is relevant to their goals, beliefs, and interests, shaping their perceptions of themselves and their social environment. Moreover, individuals engage in self-governing processes, such as goal setting, planning, and self-monitoring, to regulate their behavior and achieve desired outcomes.
Research within the social-cognitive tradition has investigated various aspects of personality development, self-regulation, and social behavior. Studies have examined the role of self-efficacy beliefs in predicting academic achievement and career success. These findings are beneficial extended within the context of business organizational theory and diversity.
2.2. Business Organizational Theory & Diversity
Business organizational theory and diversity in business are two interconnected areas of research that have implications for organizational effectiveness, employee satisfaction, and overall success in today’s global marketplace (Jones, 2013) . Organizational theory focuses on understanding the structure, processes, and dynamics of organizations (Jones, 2013) , while diversity in business explores the value of differences among individuals in terms of demographic characteristics, perspectives, and experiences within organizational settings (Rock & Grant, 2016) . In this discussion, we’ll explore key research findings and trends in both areas.
Business organizational theory encompasses a range of perspectives and approaches aimed at understanding how organizations function, adapt, and achieve their goals. One notable theory within this domain is systems theory, which views organizations as complex systems composed of interconnected elements that interact with each other and with the external environment (Luhmann et al., 2013) . According to systems theory, organizations must maintain equilibrium and adaptability to survive and thrive in dynamic environments.
Another perspective in organizational theory is contingency theory, which posits that there is no “one-size-fits-all” approach to organizational design and management (Fiedler, 2015) . Instead, the optimal structure and practices of an organization depend on various internal and external factors, such as the organization’s size, technology, environment, and goals. Contingency theory emphasizes the importance of flexibility and responsiveness to changing circumstances in achieving organizational effectiveness (Fiedler). Moreover, research in organizational theory has highlighted the role of leadership, culture, and power dynamics in shaping organizational behavior and outcomes (Jones, 2013) . Leadership theories, such as transformational leadership and servant leadership, emphasize the importance of inspiring and empowering followers to achieve collective goals. Organizational culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, and norms that guide behavior within an organization and influence its identity and performance. Power dynamics, on the other hand, involve the distribution of authority and influence among individuals and groups within an organization, which can impact decision-making processes and employee engagement (Jackson, 2022) .
In recent years, there has been growing interest in diversity and inclusion within organizational theory, as researchers recognize the potential benefits of leveraging diversity to enhance creativity, innovation, and problem-solving in organizations (Hunt et al., 2015) . Diversity in business refers to the presence of individuals from different backgrounds, such as race, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, and cultural heritage, within the workforce. Inclusion, on the other hand, involves creating a supportive and fair environment where all individuals feel valued, respected, and empowered to contribute their unique perspectives and talents (Ozturk & Tatli, 2016) .
Research has shown that diverse teams and organizations are more likely to outperform homogeneous ones in terms of decision-making quality, creativity, and financial performance (Rock & Grant, 2016) . By bringing together individuals with diverse backgrounds and perspectives, organizations can access into a broader range of ideas, experiences, and insights, leading to more innovative solutions and better adaptation to changing market conditions. Moreover, diversity can enhance employee engagement, satisfaction, and retention by fostering a sense of belonging and inclusion among all members of the workforce.
However, achieving the full potential of diversity requires more than just increasing representation. Organizations must also develop inclusive leadership, practices, and cultures that value and leverage differences while mitigating biases and barriers to inclusion. Inclusive leaders demonstrate empathy, openness, and humility, actively seeking out and valuing diverse perspectives and experiences (Rock & Grant, 2016) . Inclusive practices involve policies, procedures, and norms that promote fairness, equity, and transparency in all aspects of organizational life, from recruitment and hiring to performance evaluation and promotion.
Furthermore, research has highlighted the importance of diversity in leadership positions for driving organizational change and fostering inclusive cultures (Chanland & Murphy, 2018) . Diverse leadership teams are better equipped to understand and address the needs and concerns of diverse stakeholders, leading to more effective decision-making and stakeholder engagement. Moreover, diverse leadership can serve as role models and mentors for employees from disadvantaged groups, inspiring them to reach their full potential and advance within the organization.
Despite the potential benefits of diversity, organizations continue to face challenges in fostering inclusive environments and realizing the full value of diversity. Implied biases, stereotypes, and discrimination can undermine efforts to create inclusive cultures and limit the opportunities for individuals from underrepresented groups (Hamilton & Sherman, 2014) . Moreover, systemic barriers, such as unequal access to resources, opportunities, and networks, can sustain inequalities in representation and advancement within organizations (Stamarski & Son Hing, 2015) .
To address these challenges, organizations must adopt a comprehensive and proactive approach to diversity and inclusion, integrating diversity initiatives into their overall business strategy and culture (Chanland & Murphy, 2018) . This involves conducting regular diversity assessments, setting clear goals and metrics for diversity and inclusion, implementing bias-mitigation training and programs, and holding leaders and managers accountable for fostering inclusive behaviors and practices. Moreover, organizations must foster a culture of psychological safety and belonging where all employees feel empowered to speak up, share their perspectives, and challenge the status quo.
In conclusion, research in business organizational theory and diversity in business has provided insights into the dynamics of organizations and the importance of leveraging diversity to drive innovation, performance, and inclusivity. By understanding and addressing the complex interaction between organizational structures, cultures, and diversity initiatives, organizations can create environments where all individuals can thrive and contribute their full potential towards achieving shared goals and objectives. With the context of research related to business organizational theory and diversity developed, it is possible to narrow the attention on applications of personality in business.
2.3. Applications of Personality in Business
Personality psychology is recognized as a tool for understanding individual differences in the workplace and has been applied in various business contexts to inform hiring decisions, improve team dynamics, enhance leadership effectiveness, and promote organizational development (Wagerman & Funder, 2009) . Research in this area has explored how personality assessments and frameworks can be used to predict job performance, identify leadership potential, and promote employee development. In this examination, key findings, and applications of personality in the business context are explored.
One of the primary implementations of personality in business is in the selection and recruitment process (Yakubovich & Lup, 2006) . Organizations use personality assessments as part of their hiring procedures to screen job candidates and identify individuals who possess the traits and characteristics that are aligned with the requirements of the role and the organizational culture. For example, research has shown that certain personality traits, such as conscientiousness and emotional stability, are strong predictors of job performance across a wide range of occupations and industries. By incorporating personality assessments into their recruitment process, organizations can make more informed decisions about candidate fit and reduce turnover rates.
Moreover, personality assessments can also be tools for team building and improving group dynamics within organizations. Research has demonstrated that teams composed of members with diverse personality profiles tend to be more innovative, creative, and effective in problem-solving compared to homogeneous teams (Rock & Grant, 2016) . By understanding the strengths and weaknesses of individual team members and how they complement each other, managers can build more balanced and cohesive teams that leverage the unique talents and perspectives of each member. Additionally, personality assessments can help identify potential sources of conflict within teams and provide insights into how to mitigate these issues and promote collaboration.
Leadership development is another area where personality assessments have been applied in business. Research has identified specific personality traits and behaviors that are associated with effective leadership, such as extraversion, emotional intelligence, and integrity (Sethuraman & Suresh, 2014) . By assessing leaders’ personality profiles and providing targeted feedback and development opportunities, organizations can help leaders enhance their self-awareness, interpersonal skills, and overall effectiveness in leading teams and driving organizational performance. Personality assessments can also inform succession planning and talent management initiatives by identifying high-potential employees who possess the necessary traits and competencies to assume leadership roles in the future.
Furthermore, personality assessments can be used to inform employee development and career planning efforts within organizations. By understanding employees’ personality profiles and preferences, managers can tailor training programs, coaching interventions, and career paths to align with individuals’ strengths, interests, and goals (Lindner, 1998) . For example, employees who score high on openness to experience may benefit from opportunities to work on cross-functional projects or pursue roles that require creativity and innovation, while those who score high on conscientiousness may thrive in roles that require attention to detail and adherence to procedures.
Despite the use of personality assessments in business, there are also limitations and challenges associated with its application. One common criticism is the potential for bias and misuse in interpreting assessment results, particularly if assessments are used as the sole basis for hiring or promotion decisions (Felfernig, 2014) . Additionally, personality assessments may not capture the full complexity of individual differences and may oversimplify the subtle nature of human behavior and motivation (Jackson & Messick, 1958) . Furthermore, personality traits are not static and may vary depending on situational factors and life experiences, which can pose challenges for predicting long-term behavior and performance (Mischel, 2013) .
In conclusion, research on the application of personality in business has demonstrated its value in informing recruitment, team building, leadership development, and employee development within organizations. By leveraging insights from personality psychology, organizations can make more informed decisions about hiring, developing, and managing their talent, leading to improved organizational performance and employee satisfaction. However, there is still a need for further research to explore the nuances of personality in the business context and to develop more robust and ethical practices for applying personality assessments in organizational settings. This study seeks to contribute to this body of knowledge by examining the linguistic, semantic, and sentiment at the intersection prior, relevant research on personality, business organizational theory, and diversity as a means of gaining insight into its implications for organizational effectiveness and success.
In this section, the diverse applications of personality psychology within business contexts were explored. Personality assessments were shown to play a role in recruitment processes, assisting in the selection of candidates who possess traits aligned with job requirements and organizational culture. Furthermore, personality insights inform team building efforts, fostering diverse and effective groups that utilize individual strengths. Leadership development initiatives benefit from personality assessments, enabling personalized strategies to enhance leaders’ self-awareness and interpersonal skills. Additionally, personality assessments guide employee development and career planning, aligning training and growth opportunities with individual preferences and strengths. While these applications offer benefits for organizational performance and employee satisfaction, challenges such as bias and oversimplification remain relevant concerns. Therefore, further research is needed to refine practices and ensure ethical and effective use of personality assessments in business. The following section will detail the methodology employed to investigate the semantic intersection of personality, business organizational theory, and diversity in enhancing organizational effectiveness.
3. Method
Personality is a concern in business, organizations, and management (Emmons, 2003) . Understanding how the concept of personality is introduced to those engaged in these professional disciplines is beneficial. Methodologies are useful in establishing the specific contexts within studies (Hahn & Jennings, 2014) . This mixed-methods (McKim, 2017) study was based on an analysis of fifty peer-reviewed, academic articles, identified using a predefined selection protocol. In its most basic construction, the articles were identified based on the topic of personalities being present in research relating to business. This mixed-methods study focused both on qualitative and quantitative aspects resident in the author-created corpus. There were multiple works that were used in the sourcing of these academic journals. No audio files or video files were used in this research. Facilitating a variety of sources provided an extensive analysis on the subject. To develop the methodology more fully it is beneficial to describe the primary steps taken to identify and analyze the selected articles. The data filtering process used for article identification is presented as Figure 1.
As indicated in Figure 1, for the first step of acquiring sources, a university library database was used to evaluate peer reviewed articles and journals. Collecting data from the library database involved accessing stored information that can be refined and retrieved quickly. Using filters and advanced search options was useful in finding relevant search results to narrow down the information needed. For the specific subject, the key words used for the search consisted of the terms personality and business. These specific words provided articles that related to companies or businesses, while relating also to research on personalities. Before searching these articles there were specific refinement criteria employed for all sources. This information included being 1) peer-reviewed, 2) having a PDF attachment, and 3) being written in English. Once the search was complete, there was an additional refinement of the articles organizing them based on relevance to the key words. The decision was made to focus this analysis on the first 50 sources identified when sorted by relevance. A list of the 50 articles used in this study is included in the Appendix. There is an element of subjectivity associated with the selection of 50 articles. In general, more data are preferable to less (Lohr, 2012) . However, in a study of this nature, the constraint of time required a degree of selectivity (Buelens et al., 2014) . In general, according to the central limit theorem, the distribution of sample means is approximately normal, regardless of its underlying distribution, as the sample size reaches or exceeds 30 observations (Kwak & Kim, 2017) . As a research heuristic, exceeding 30 observations was determined to be desirable for that reason. By picking the first 50 sources, it provided both the most relevant research related to personality in business and enough observations that ensure the appropriateness of using traditional, parametric statistical tests (e.g., t-test). Additionally, using 50 articles was manageable enough to interpret the qualitative themes, while also providing an appropriate range of details from multiple authors representing various perspectives. The APA citations of these 50 articles were then placed into a Word document for the purpose of compilation.
An Excel file was produced containing the author and introduction section of each of the 50 articles. In the first column, each source was organized by the author. In the second column, the introduction section from each article was copied and pasted into the cell beside the corresponding author. In this way, the row consisted of the author (i.e., first column) and the full introduction (i.e.,
![]()
Figure 1. Data filtering process for article identification.
second column) for a given source. This resulted in an Excel file with 51 rows (the first row being the column headings) and 2 columns. After each article had the required information copied into the Excel document, this file was ingested into RStudio for processing and analysis. R code was used for the generation of the most common keywords and bigrams of merit (Fox et al., 2023) in the introduction of each article.
RStudio is a free (Boehmke & Jackson, 2016) development environment designed specifically for the R programming language (Verzani, 2011) . R is an open-source statistical programming language used for data analysis and visualization (Chambers, 2008) . RStudio provides an adaptable and efficient platform for working with R, making it easier for those using R-based projects to understand (Chambers). In RStudio, the following packages were used to analyze the articles’ introductions; dplyr (Wickham et al., 2014) , ggplot2 (Wickham et al., 2016) , textdata (Welbers et al., 2017) , tidyr (Wickham & Wickham, 2017a) , tidytext (Sharma, 2018) , tidyverse (Wickham & Wickham, 2017b) , readxl (Wickham et al., 2019) , stringr (Wickham & Wickham, 2019) , tm (Feinerer et al., 2015) , and xlsx (Dragulescu et al., 2020) . These packages allow one to interpret the essential words, while removing and tidying up the excess English words used in common language (e.g., a, the, this, that). In the first analysis, focus was given to the most frequently used words in each introduction along with the number of times it was mentioned. The next results focused on the most used bigrams in each article. Using these two files, one could analyze more about the significance of words based on the relative usage developed in and among the articles.
Determining articles that have words in common involved a process of comparative analysis. By examining the frequency and context of shared words across articles, one can identify common themes or topics. Conversely, words unique to specific articles can signify distinct subjects or perspectives. Additionally, sentiment analysis, employing semantic lexicons, offers deeper insights into the emotional tone of the articles. The AFINN sentiment lexicon assigns a score to words indicating their polarity, ranging from highly negative (−5) to highly positive (+5). By aggregating these scores, sentiment analysis can reveal the overall emotional sentiment conveyed within articles, aiding in understanding public opinion, market trends, and other valuable insights. Given the focus on business in an academic sense, the average sentiment scores for articles referencing business were compared to those referencing students.
This methodology section provided a brief overview of the process of sourcing articles, data collection, and interpretation of articles focused on personality in business. Additionally, it explained the use of RStudio and how it was used to develop the keywords of merit that were established from the Excel document. It also gave insight into the steps taken during the respective analytic procedures. While the study was designed to focus on essential words, phrases, and themes, certain occurrences of irrelevant words and bigrams were found. These are noted in the results section, and do not impact the general interpretation or utility of these results.
4. Results
There are a variety of industries and companies in society that include individuals who have a different personality type. Every individual is different in the traits and qualities that they can bring to a company. The methodology described the processes which the study took to produce these results. From the sources that were found in the university library database, the R programming system used the code to generate three different analyses that were evaluated in this section. Following established areas of focus (Fox et al., 2023; Jackson & Heath, 2023) , the three subsections covered in the results include words of merit (subsection 4.1), bigrams of merit (subsection 4.2), and sentiment analysis (subsection 4.3). The results related to the top 10 words of merit are presented first.
4.1. Words of Merit
The first section encompasses words that were used most in the articles’ introduction known as “words of merit” (Fox et al., 2023; Jackson & Heath, 2023) . These words can serve as a preface to the articles. The words displayed in the Table 1 were observed frequently in the respective articles. Looking into these top words of merit can be essential to discovering common themes throughout the study. This analysis can provide insights into central ideas and concepts that were presented in the various articles. Words that are frequently repeated often reflect an author’s emphasis (Masson & Freedman, 1990) . This can help gain a better understanding of the main points of focus. Additionally, these words can capture the essence of a text and distill complex information into summarized takeaways. Table 1 contains the top 10 words of merit mentioned across the articles analyzed.
![]()
Table 1. Top 10 words of merit in intros in business articles referencing psychology.
From the table, there are insights that can be inferred. The top word of merit used most frequently was type (n = 46). After further analysis, it was determined that the word type was used in different ways depending on context. From the article in the study, it was used primarily in the context of “personality type” and how different types were going to be evaluated. This finding suggests the benefit derived from an examination of bigrams. Looking further into the chart, the next two words most frequently used were stress (n = 38) and conflict (n = 28). These two words tend to carry a negative connotation. Stress and conflict were both found to interact closely with various aspects of personality traits, coping mechanisms, and behavioral responses. Other terms in the table that stood out were mental (n = 27) and emotion (n = 24). These words can encompass how personality can contribute to one’s thoughts and feelings. Technostress (n = 27) is a word with less social currency and refers to the negative psychological reactions that result from the use of technology. After evaluating the information in Table 1, it was found that many of the words of merit have negative, semantic connotations. The results of this study suggest that examining personality in the context of the workplace might not result in discussions that are viewed by those involved as semantically positive. As suggested by these results, an analysis of bigrams is an important adjunct to the analysis of singular words. The results of the analysis of bigrams of merit are presented next (subsection 4.2).
4.2. Bigrams of Merit
Following the words of merit, the next analysis was of bigrams of merit which include the top two-word phrases used in the selected articles. The bigrams are like the words of merit because they can display themes, patterns, and emphasis that an article may contain. Bigrams are important to consider because important elements of focus can occur as two-word phrases rather than single words. Table 2 displays the most frequently used bigrams in the articles analyzed.
![]()
Table 2. Top 10 bigrams of merit in intros in business articles referencing psychology.
A comparison of the results of words (Table 1) and bigrams (Table 2) reveals an observable difference in the scale of occurrences between the two, with 46 occurrences being observed for the most common word of merit compared to 17 occurrences for the most common bigram of merit. The most common bigram observed was unintended consequences (n = 17). The second most common bigram was premorbid personality (n = 16). That phrase can refer to an individual’s personality characteristics before a disorder. When entering a work environment, it is important for management to understand how to collaborate with those who have possible neurological or mental conditions. From a business and organization perspective, the bigram whistle blowing (n = 16) is relevant. Analysis of that phrase revealed, context potentially influences an employee’s willingness to engage in whistle blowing activities. Further in Table 2, the phrases mental illness (n = 15) and mental health (n = 12) were found to be two commonly used bigrams in the analyzed articles. Based on the terms used to find the articles, personality and business, these findings suggest that attributes of well-being are important considerations to working in a business. As already alluded to in this study, words convey intended and unintended connotations. These provide a sense of what is being discussed, which can be examined formally through sentiment analysis. The results of the sentiment analysis of this study are presented in the following section (subsection 4.3).
4.3. Sentiment Analysis
The final analysis of this study involves evaluating the sentiment of the introductions of the articles contained in this corpus. Sentiment analysis provides a score for a text that categorizes it as positive, negative, or neutral. Sentiment analysis is made use of in various fields such as customer feedback, market research, and social media monitoring. It is evaluated through a lexicon-based method that is applied to classify the sentiment of a text. As indicated in the method section of this study (Section 3), the AFINN semantic lexicon was used, which allows a specific sentiment score to be determined for a given text. For example, a text with a higher average number of negative words will result in a negative sentiment score. Conversely, a text with a higher average number of positives words will result in a positive score. Table 3 contains the comparative sentiment scores for the subset of article introductions containing words of merit related to either business or students.
The comparative sentiment analysis between business-related and student-related articles, as indicated in Table 3, reveals a few points of distinction. First, there were more articles referencing business (n = 10) than those referencing students (n = 5). The articles related to business contained words like business, organization(s), organizational, consumers, team, and managers. The first business article in Table 3 (Barki & Hartwick, 2004) had an average sentiment score of −1.622. The articles referencing students were focused exclusively on the term students, as no similar terms were identified. The first article referencing students in Table 3 (Chen & Simpson, 2015) had an average sentiment score of 1.033. Lastly, in terms of observed sentiment score, the business articles ranged from a low score of −1.731 to a high score of 1.857, whereas the student articles ranged from a low score of −0.027 to a high score of 1.563. Given these ranges, the business articles had a wider range of values and correspondingly, a larger standard deviation. The average sentiment score for the business articles (M = 0.364, SD = 1.265) was lower than that of the student articles (M = 0.989, SD = 0.635). Whereas there is an observable difference between the two mean sentiment scores, the observed difference is not statistically significant, t (13) = −1.277, p = 0.22. These results suggest that whereas there is an observable difference in the way personality is discussed in the introductions to academic articles, these differences do not manifest in a statistically significant difference in sentiment between those articles frequently referencing business and those frequently referencing students, when measured using the AFINN lexicon.
After reviewing these results, it can be seen that the words found in articles are useful for indicating a basic summary. The words of merit can help note how often a singular word is repeated and assist in locating these words in the introduction. By finding bigrams and words of merit one can establish context and gain potential insight into what the article will be communicating. The sentiment analysis indicated that there is not a statistically significant difference in the average sentiment of article introductions between articles frequently referencing business and those frequently referencing students. By combining the bigrams and words of merit with the sentiment analysis, one can locate common themes. These results allowed for insight into the diversity of focus associated with the application of personality psychology in business. The conclusion reviews the results, addresses the limitations of the study, and suggests future research before explaining how research in this field matters to those interested in business.
![]()
Table 3. Comparative sentiment scores for introductions with references to Business or Students.
5. Conclusion
Personality psychology needs no introduction in business. However, examining the introductions of academic articles related to personal psychology in business is revealing. In business, understanding personality is foremost. Throughout this study, ways to unravel the linguistic and semantic intricacies of diverse personalities within the business environment were explored. This research has illuminated a diversity of applications of personality psychology in research related to business and organizations. Through this research, insights were uncovered that evaluate the role of personality in professional organizations.
After the results were derived from the analyses, it can be seen how understanding the value of unique personality will help build robust organizations. There will be different perspectives and developments that diverse personnel can provide. The words of merit provided an initial assessment of article focus, but it was discovered that researching bigrams was able to provide additional understanding of the articles and their overall significance to the study. The sentiment analysis allowed the study to assess and compare connotations to help further evaluate and contextualize the bigrams and words of merit. Whereas the results of this study are potentially useful, every study has limitations.
Whereas this research analysis study provides valuable insights into the relationship between personality traits and business outcomes, several limitations should be acknowledged to ensure the interpretation and generalization of findings are done with appropriate caution. This study relied on a sample size of 50 articles. As a result, there could be more sources that could be related to this topic with important information. Including a larger number of representative articles would likely increase the generalizability of the results. In terms of the method, this study examined the most frequent words and bigrams. Extending the focus to more obscure words or bigrams could reveal insights into linguistic fulcrum or pivot points within academic publications related to personality psychology. Such an extension would benefit from a new research question focused on determining the degree to which word or bigram frequency is related to point amplification, nuance, contradiction, or divergence. Additionally, another limitation is that all articles studied were written in English. While widely used, English is not the only language that communicates about the relationship between business and personality. Future research could explore alternative ways to approach translating these other sources. The study’s reliance on published literature and available case study examples may be susceptible to publication bias. These studies, considering that they are all academic articles, may have statistically significant findings that are more likely to be published than those with null or non-significant results. As a result, the findings may overrepresent positive or negative associations between personality traits and business outcomes. Despite these limitations, this research contributes to our collective understanding of complex relationships between personality traits and organizations in business. By noticing these limitations and building upon existing research, future studies can address these findings and challenges.
Those familiar with the results of this study are in the best position for further exploration and understanding of the intricate relationships between personality traits and working in businesses and organizations. The insights from this research study show the role that individual differences can play in shaping organizational performance, leadership effectiveness, and team dynamics. To help make progress in business, the following must be demonstrated. Researchers are encouraged to undertake more empirical studies that will lead to real-life scenarios and show underlying relationships that could be missed in this research. Additionally, recognizing the influence that cultural factors and diversity can shape how personality traits can affect a business is an important aspect to uncover. Researchers and readers play a role in promoting the research findings through publications, conferences, workshops, classes, and individual and collective actions. Sharing this knowledge engaging in dialogue, and championing organizational diversity can inspire further thought, collaboration, and drive a positive change to organizational practices.
Appendix
Ahmad, N., & Abdulkarim, H. (2019). The Impact of Flow Experience and Personality Type on the Intention to Use Virtual World. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 35, 1074-1085. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2018.1509500
Álvarez-Melgarejo, M., & Torres-Barreto, M. (2018). Can Resources Act as Capabilities Foundations? A Bibliometric Analysis. UIS Ingenierías, 17, 185-200. https://doi.org/10.18273/revuin.v17n2-2018017
Babatunde, A. (2013). Occupational Stress: A Review on Conceptualisations, Causes and Cure. Petroleum-Gas University of Ploiesti Bulletin, Technical Series, 65, 73-80.
Barki, H., & Hartwick, J. (2004). Conceptualizing the Construct of Interpersonal Conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 15, 216-244. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb022913
Cardon, P., Marshall, B., & Poddar, A. (2011). Using Typologies to Interpret Study Abroad Preferences of American Business Students: Applying a Tourism Framework to International Education. Journal of Education for Business, 86, 111-118. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2010.482949
Carpini, J. A., Chandra, J., Lin, J., Teo, R., Truong, N., Boyne, E., Wylde, T., Clifford, R., & Ashoorian, D. (2021). Mental Health First Aid by Australian Tertiary Staff: Application Rates, Modes, Content, and Outcomes. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 15, 1234-1242. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.13072
Cernian, A., Vasile, N., & Sacala, I. S. (2021). Fostering Cyber-Physical Social Systems through an Ontological Approach to Personality Classification Based on Social Media Posts. Sensors, 21, Article No. 6611. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21196611
Chen, P. D., & Simpson, P. A. (2015). Does Personality Matter? Applying Holland’s Typology to Analyze Students’ Self-Selection into Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Majors. Journal of Higher Education, 86, 725-750. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2015.11777381
Chen, Y.-Z. (2019). Exploring Identities and Practices of Taiwanese Men Working in Family Day Care: A Tentative Typology. Journal of Gender Studies, 28, 883-894. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2019.1577131
Clark, M. S., & Finkel, E. J. (2005). Willingness to Express Emotion: The Impact of Relationship Type, Communal Orientation, and Their Interaction. Personal Relationships, 12, 169-180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1350-4126.2005.00109.x
Coleman, B., & Dulewicz, V. (2021). Assessing the Dark Triad of Machiavellianism, Narcissism and Psychopathy in the Workplace. Assessment & Development Matters, 13, 14-17. https://doi.org/10.53841/bpsadm.2021.13.3.14
Daniels, D., Saracino, T., Fraley, M., Christian, J., & Pardo, S. (2018). Advancing Ego Development in Adulthood through Study of the Enneagram System of Personality. Journal of Adult Development, 25, 229-241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-018-9289-x
de Vel-Palumbo, M., Ferguson, R., Schein, C., Chang, M. X.-L., & Bastian, B. (2022). Morally Excused but Socially Excluded: Denying Agency through the Defense of Mental Impairment. PLOS ONE, 17, e0272061. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272061
de Vel-Palumbo, M., Schein, C., Ferguson, R., Chang, M. X.-L., & Bastian, B. (2021). Morally Excused but Socially Excluded: Denying Agency through the Defense of Mental Impairment. PLOS ONE, 16, e0252586.
Elkington, J., & Fennell, S. (1998). Partners for Sustainability. Greener Management International, 24, 48.
Farley, J. A., Gibbons, M. M., & Cihak, D. F. (2014). Peer Mentors in a Postsecondary Education Program for Students with Intellectual Disabilities. College Student Journal, 48, 651-660.
Gorla, N., Chiravuri, A., & Meso, P. (2013). Effect of Personality Type on Structured Tool Comprehension Performance. Requirements Engineering, 18, 281-292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00766-012-0158-z
Grailey, K. E., Murray, E. J., Billings, J., & Brett, S. J. (2020). How Do Critical Care Staff Respond to Organisational Challenge? A Qualitative Exploration into Personality Types and Cognitive Processing in Critical Care. PLOS ONE, 15, e0226800. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226800
Guthmuller, S. (2022). Loneliness among Older Adults in Europe: The Relative Importance of Early and Later Life Conditions. PLOS ONE, 17, e0267562. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267562
Hackston, J. (2023). Organisational Inclusion: What Makes a Difference? Assessment & Development Matters, 15, 35-42. https://doi.org/10.53841/bpsadm.2023.15.2.35
Hasan, S., & Waqas, M. (2017). Organizational Justice, Personality Types and Turnover Intentions. Bahria Journal of Professional Psychology, 16, 9-16.
Isaksen, S. G., Lauer, K. J., & Wilson, G. V. (2003). An Examination of the Relationship between Personality Type and Cognitive Style. Creativity Research Journal, 15, 343-354. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326934CRJ1504_4
Johnson, H. M., & Singh, A. (1998). The Personality of Civil Engineers. Journal of Management in Engineering, 14, 45. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0742-597X(1998)14:4(45)
Kato, T. A., Katsuki, R., Kubo, H., Shimokawa, N., Sato, K. M., Hayakawa, K., Kuwano, N., Umene, N. W., Tateno, M., Setoyama, D., Kang, D., Watabe, M., Sakamoto, S., Teo, A. R., & Kanba, S. (2019). Development and Validation of the 22-Item Tarumi’s Modern-Type Depression Trait Scale: Avoidance of Social Roles, Complaint, and Low Self-Esteem (TACS-22). Psychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences, 73, 448-457. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12842
Lawrence, R., & Taylor, L. W. (2000). Student Personality Type versus Grading Procedures in Intermediate Accounting Courses. Journal of Education for Business, 76, 28-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832320009599047
Lee, S.-Y., & Min, J. (2016). The Profiles of Creative Potential and Personality Characteristics of Adult Professionals. Creativity Research Journal, 28, 298-309. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2016.1195634
Liao, Y. (2022). Intention of Consumers to Adopt Electric Vehicle in the Post-Subsidy Era: Evidence from China. International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 16, 647-659. https://doi.org/10.1080/15568318.2021.1918297
Liu, Y., Zhao, S., Jiang, L., & Li, R. (2016). When Does a Proactive Personality Enhance an Employee’s Whistle-Blowing Intention? A Cross-Level Investigation of the Employees in Chinese Companies. Ethics & Behavior, 26, 660-677. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2015.1113382
Luckett, M., Trocchia, P. J., Noel, N. M., & Marlin, D. (2017). A Typology of Students Based on Academic Entitlement. Journal of Education for Business, 92, 96-102. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2017.1281214
McAulay, L. (2007). Unintended Consequences of Computer-Mediated Communications. Behaviour & Information Technology, 26, 385-398. https://doi.org/10.1080/01449290500535343
Miller, M. J. (1994). A “Circuitous” Test of Holland’s Theory. Journal of Employment Counseling, 31, 137-143. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1920.1994.tb00183.x
Miller, M. J. (1998). Broadening the Use of Holland’s Hexagon with Specific Implications for Career Counselors. Journal of Employment Counseling, 35, 2-6. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1920.1998.tb00470.x
Muñoz Soro, J. F., & Serrano-Cinca, C. (2021). A Model for Predicting Court Decisions on Child Custody. PLOS ONE, 16, e0258993. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258993
Murtza, M. H., Gill, S. A., Aslam, H. D., & Noor, A. (2021). Intelligence Quotient, Job Satisfaction, and Job Performance: The Moderating Role of Personality Type. Journal of Public Affairs, 21, 1-12.
Nahavandi, A., Mizzi, P. J., & Malekzadeh, A. R. (1992). Executives’ Type A Personality as a Determinant of Environmental Perception and Firm Strategy. Journal of Social Psychology, 132, 59-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1992.9924688
North, D., & Smallbone, D. (2006). Developing Entrepreneurship and Enterprise in Europe’s Peripheral Rural Areas: Some Issues Facing Policy-Makers. European Planning Studies, 14, 41-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654310500339125
Ohler, D. L., & Levinson, E. M. (2012). Using Holland’s Theory in Employment Counseling: Focus on Service Occupations. Journal of Employment Counseling, 49, 148-159. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1920.2012.00016.x
Rayner, H. (2020). Personality and Different Types of Teams. Assessment & Development Matters, 12, 14-17. https://doi.org/10.53841/bpsadm.2020.12.3.14
Rice Jr., G. H., & Lindecamp, D. P. (1989). Personality Types and Business Success of Small Retailers. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 62, 177-182. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1989.tb00488.x
Robie, C., Risavy, S. D., Jacobs, R. R., Christiansen, N. D., König, C. J., & Speer, A. B. (2021). An Updated Survey of Beliefs and Practices Related to Faking in Individual Assessments. International Journal of Selection & Assessment, 29, 503-509. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsa.12335
Russo, C., Mertins, L., & Ray, M. (2013). Psychological Type and Academic Performance in the Managerial Accounting Course. Journal of Education for Business, 88, 210-215. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2012.672935
Sabater-Grande, G., Haro, G., García-Gallego, A., Georgantzís, N., Herranz-Zarzoso, N., & Baquero, A. (2020). Risk-Taking and Fairness among Cocaine-Dependent Patients in Dual Diagnoses: Schizophrenia and Anti-Social Personality Disorder. Scientific Reports, 10, Article No. 10120. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-66954-2
Sakitri, G. (2020). The Relationship among Student Stress, Type A Personality, and Academic Performance in a Business School in Indonesia. Journal of Education for Business, 95, 169-179. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2019.1627994
Salgado, J. F., Anderson, N., & Tauriz, G. (2015). The Validity of Ipsative and Quasi-Ipsative Forced-Choice Personality Inventories for Different Occupational Groups: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 88, 797-834. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12098
Saraç, M. (2019). Which Firms Outperform the Others under Uncertainty: Revisiting Miles and Snow Typology. International Journal of Social Inquiry, 12, 261-285.
Sumiyana, S., & Sriwidharmanely, S. (2020). Mitigating the Harmful Effects of Technostress: Inducing Chaos Theory in an Experimental Setting. Behaviour & Information Technology, 39, 1079-1093. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2019.1641229
Tudoran, D., & Bogluț, A. (2014). The Negotiator’s Psychological Personality. Research Journal of Agricultural Science, 46, 403-411.
Varvel, T., Adams, S. G., Pridie, S. J., & Ruiz Ulloa, B. C. (2004). Team Effectiveness and Individual Myers-Briggs Personality Dimensions. Journal of Management in Engineering, 20, 141-146. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0742-597X(2004)20:4(141)
Wickham, J., & Vecchi, A. (2008). Local Firms and Global Reach: Business Air Travel and the Irish Software Cluster. European Planning Studies, 16, 693-710. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654310802049315
Wood, J. (2007). Risk Typologies of Serious Harm Offenders Managed under MAPPA: Mental Health, Personality Disorders, and Self-Harm as Distinguishing Risk Factors. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 18, 470-481. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789940701474889