Health Risk Assessment after Exposure to Aluminium in Drinking Water between Two Different Villages

M. S. Qaiyum, M. S. Shaharudin, A. I. Syazwan, A. Muhaimin

.

DOI: 10.4236/jwarp.2011.34034                

Abstract

A cross-sectional study was conducted at Mukim Parit Lubok (MPL) and Parit Raja (PR), Batu Pahat, Malaysia. The main objective of this study was to determine the aluminium concentration in drinking water and to perform health risk assessment prediction among respondents from these two residential areas. A total of 100 respondents were selected from the study areas based on inclusive and exclusive criteria. Two duplicates of treated water samples were taken from each respondent’s house using 200mL high-density polyethylene (HDPE) bottles and 0.4 mL (69%) pure concentrated nitric acid were added as a preservative. Aluminium concentrations were analyzed using a Lambda 25 UV/V spectrophotometer. The result showed that aluminium concentration in drinking water from MPL was 0.18 ± 0.022 mg/L and 0.22 ± 0.044 mg/L for PR. Statistical analysis showed that 14 (28%) water samples collected from MPL and 35 (70%) from PR recorded concentration of aluminium above the standard limit set by the Ministry of Health, Malaysia for drinking water guideline (0.2 mg/L). The mean value of Chronic Daily Intake (CDI) of aluminium in drinking water from PR (0.00707 mg/kg/day) was significantly higher compared to MPL (0.00164 mg/kg/day). Hazard Index (HI) calculation showed that all respondents had “HI” of less than 1. In conclusion, there was an unlikely potential for adverse health effects from aluminium intake in drinking water from both study areas. However, it was necessary for some actions to be taken in order to reduce aluminium levels found in drinking water for both locations.

Keywords

Aluminium, Drinking Water, Health Risk Assessment, Chronic Daily Intake (CDI), Hazard Index (HI)

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	United States Geological Surve, USA Geological Survey, National Field Manual for the Collection of Water-Quality Data, 2011. http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/twri9A/
[2]	M. S. Aini, A. Fakhrul-Razi, O. Mumtazah and J. C. Meow Chen, “Malaysian Households’ Drinking Water Practices: A Case Study,” International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, Vol. 14, pp. 503-505, 2007.
[3]	R. L. Calderon, “The Epidemiology of Chemical Contaminants of Drinking Water,” Food and Chemical Toxicology, Vol. 38, pp. S13-S20, 2000. doi:10.1016/S0278-6915(99)00133-7
[4]	MOH, “Drinking Water Quality Standard Drinking Water Quality Surveillance Programme,” Engineering Services Division Ministry of Health, Putrajaya, Malaysia, 2009.
[5]	MOH, “Sistem Bekalan Air Loji Rawatan Air Parit Raja IV dan Sri Gading, Batu Pahat,” Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia, 2005.
[6]	D. Krewski, R. A. Yokel, E. Nieboer, D. Borchelt, J. Cohen, J. Harry, S. Kacew, J. Lindsay, A. M. Mahfouz and V. Rondeau, “Human Health Risk Assessment for Aluminium, Aluminium Oxide, and Aluminium Hydroxide,” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health-Part B-Critical Reviews, Vol. 10, pp. 1-269, 2007. doi:10.1080/10937400701597766
[7]	ATSDR, “Public Health Statement: Aluminium,” Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), Atlanta, 2006.
[8]	WHO, “Upgrading Water Treatment Plants,” World Health Organization Publication, 2001.
[9]	M. Gidding, “Aluminum,” Environmental and Workplace Health Canadian Drinking Water Quality, Canada, 1998.
[10]	P. T. Srinivasan, T. Viraraghavan and K. S Subramanyam, “Aluminium in Drinking Water: An Overview,” Water SA, Vol. 25, pp. 47-55, 1999.
[11]	V. Rondeau, D. Commenges, H. J. Acqmin-Gadda, J. F. Dartigues, “Relation Between Aluminum Concentrations in Drinking Water and Alzheimer’s Disease: An 8-year Follow-up Study,” American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 152, pp. 59-66, 2000. doi:10.1093/aje/152.1.59
[12]	C. Janson, et al., “Insomnia is More Common among Subjects Living in Damp Buildings,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Vol. 62, pp. 113-118, 2005. doi:10.1136/oem.2003.011379
[13]	EPA, “A Guide to Health Risk Assessment,” California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California, 2001.
[14]	P. Kavcar, et al., “A Health Risk Assessment for Exposure to Trace Metals via Drinking Water Ingestion Pathway,” International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, Vol. 212, pp. 216-227, 2009. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2008.05.002
[15]	MOH, “National Standard for Drinking Water Quality,” Engineering Sevices Division, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Putrajaya, 2004.
[16]	PerkinElmer, “Water and Environmental Analysis According to US EPA Regulations Using the Lambda 25/35/45 UV/Vis Spectrophotometers,” 2006.
[17]	USEPA, “Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund. Vol. I. Human Health Evaluation Manual. Part A. Interim Final,” Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 1989.
[18]	FAO and WHO, “Aluminum: Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants, 32,” Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, WHO, Geneva, 1989, pp. 28-31.
[19]	USGS., U. S. Geological Survey, National Field Manual for the Collection of Water-Quality Data. http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/twri9A/
[20]	Health Canada, “Aluminum [Technical docment–Che- mical/Ph- ysical Parameters],” 2008, p. 3. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/aluminum/aluminum-aluminium-eng.php
[21]	D. Diaconu, et al., “Aluminum Concentration in Drinking Water from Moldova Territory, Romania,” Ovidius University Annals of Chemistry, Vol. 20, pp. 115-118, 2009.
[22]	A. Nora, “Kepekatan Aluminium Dalam Air Minum dan Penilaian Risiko Kesihatan di dua petempatan di Johor,” Unievrsiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, 2003.
[23]	D. A. Rubinos, et al., “Aluminium Contents Indrinking Water from Public Water Supplies of Galicia (Northwest Spain),” The Fourth Inter-Celtic Colloquium on Hydrology and Management of Water Resources, Portugal, 2005.
[24]	NHRMC, “Australian Drinking Water Guidelines,” National Water Quality Management Strategy. National Resource Management Ministerial Council (NHMRC), Australia, 2004.
[25]	A. Azmir, “Kepekatan Aluminium di dalam air minum dan Penilaian Risiko Kesihatan di dua buah petempatan di Selangor,” BSc. Environmental and Occupational Health, Department of Community Health, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, 2003.
[26]	Mohd Sham Shaharuddin, Yusoff Mohd Kamil, Yaziz Mohammed Ismail, Ramli Mohammad Firuz, I. Syazwan Aizat and Abdullah Mohd Yunus, “Fluoride Concentration in Malaysian Drinking Water,” American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 417-420, 2009.
[27]	M. S. Shaharuddin, M. N. Kidahus, S. Sumarlan, Y. M. Kamil and Y. M. Ismail et al. “Dental Fluorosis (DF) and Its Relationship With Fluoride Levels in Drinking Water in Three States in Malaysia,” Research Journal of Medical Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 20-24, 2010. doi: 10.3923/rjmsci.2010.20.24