Nano-Microencapsulation and Controlled Release of Linoleic Acid in Biopolymer Matrices: Effects of the Physical State, Water Activity, and Quercetin on Oxidative Stability

Gilles K. Kouassi, Vinod K. Teriveedhi, Christopher L. Milby, Tarab Ahmad, Mark S. Boley, Netkal M. Gowda, Ronald J. Terry

Department of Chemistry, Western Illinois University, Macomb, USA.
Department of Physics, Western Illinois University, Macomb, USA.

DOI: 10.4236/jeas.2012.21001                

Abstract

In this study, linoleic acid (LA) was encapsulated in the presence or absence of quercetin into a dual polymer system of whey protein and kappa-carrageenan using power ultrasound. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and FlowCam imaging technology were used for imaging and size determination of nano-and micro-capsules. Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) was used to determine the glass transition temperature (T_g) of the freeze-dried nanocapsules. In order to examine the effect of water activity (a_w) on the release profile of the encapsulated LA, the nanocapsules were equilibrated over saturated salt solution conditions corresponding to the range of a_w between 0.333 and 0.769 in evacuated desiccators at room temperature. Gravimetric measurements of the steady state linoleic acid (LA) contents were conducted. The anti-oxidant activity of quercetin and the stability of encapsulated LA toward long term and thermally induced rancidity was investigated. The capsules were in the nanosize regime and 83% of the LA was effectively encapsulated. Furthermore, at a_w of 0.764, the highest percentage of LA (74%) was released from the expelling nanocapsules. Quercetin was found to exhibit protective antioxidant effect against time-dependent oxidation and thermally induced rancidity of LA. Water activity values of 0.662 and 0.764 provided ideal humidity and pressure conditions for sustained release of nanoencapsulated LA at room temperature.

Keywords

Nanoencapsulation; Microencapsulation kappa-Carrageenan; Quercetin; Rancidity; Antioxidant

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1]	Y. T. Chiu, C. P. Chiu, J. T. Chien, G. H. Ho, J. Yang and B. H. Chen, “Encapsulation of Lycopene Extract from Tomato Pulp Waste with Gelatin and Poly(γ-Glutamic Acid) as Carrier,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 55, No. 13, 2007, pp. 5123-5130. doi:10.1021/jf0700069
[2]	A. Gharsallaoui, G. Roudaut, O. Chambin, A. Voilley and R. Sayrel, “Applications of Spray-Drying in Microencapsulation of Food Ingredients: An Overview,” Food Research International, Vol. 40, No. 9, 2007, pp. 1107-1121. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2007.07.004
[3]	X. Wang, Y.-W. Wang and Q. Huang, “Enhancing Stability and Oral Bioavailability of Polyphenols Using Nanoemulsions,” American Chemical Society Publications, Vol. 1007, 2009, pp. 198-212. doi:10.1021/bk-2009-1007.ch013
[4]	M. A. M. Gijs, “Magnetic Beads Handling in Chips: New Opportunities for Analytical Application,” Microfluid and Nanofluid, Vol. 1, No. 22-40, 2004, pp. 22-40. doi:10.1007/s10404-004-0010-y
[5]	H. Thembela and H. Mbhuti, “Nanotechnology and the Challenge of Clean Water,” Nature Nanotechnology, Vol. 2, 2007, pp. 663-664. doi:10.1038/nnano.2007.350
[6]	P. Walter, E. Welcomme, P. Hallegot, N. J. Zaluzec, C. Deep, J. Castaing, P. Veyssiere, R. Breniaux, J.-L. Leveque and G. Tsoucaris, “Early Use of PbS Nanotechnology for an Ancient Hair Dyeing Formula,” American Chemical Society, Vol. 6, No. 10, 2006, pp. 2215-2219.
[7]	S. C. Cunnane and M. J. Anderson, “Pure Linoleate Deficiency in the Rat: Influence on Growth, Accumulation of n-6 Polyunsaturated, and [1-14C]Linoleate Oxidation,” Journal of Lipid Research, Vol. 38, 1997, pp. 805-812.
[8]	J. Won, M.-H. Oh, J. H. Kang, M. S Kang, J.-H. Choy and S. Oh, “Stability Analysis of Zinc Oxide-Nanoencapsulated Linoleic Acid and Gamma-Linolenic Acid Conjugated,” Journal Food Science, Vol. 73, No. 8, 2008, pp. N39-N43. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2008.00924.x
[9]	H. D. Sesso, J. M. Gaziano, S. Luis and J. E. Buring, “Flavonoid Intake in the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in Women1,2,3,” American Journal Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 77, No. 6, 2003, pp. 1400-1408.
[10]	J. A. Ross and C. M. Kasum, “Dietary Flavonoids: Bioavailability, Metabolic Effects and Safety,” Annual Review, Vol. 22, 2002, pp. 19-34. doi:10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.111401.144957
[11]	R. Mikstarcka, A. M. Rinando and E. Ignatowick, “Antioxidant Effect of Trans-Sesveratrol, Pterostilbene, Quercetin and Their Combinations in Human Erithrocytes in Vitro,” Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, Vol. 65, No. 1, 2010, pp. 57-63. doi:10.1007/s11130-010-0154-8
[12]	H. Nagata, S. Takekoshi, T. Honna and K. Watanabe, “Antioxidative Action of Flavonoids, Quercetin and Catechin, Mediated by Activation of Glutathione Peroxidase,” Journal of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Vol. 24, No. 1, 1999, pp. 1-11.
[13]	C. Van Den Berg and Bruin, “Water Activity and Its Estimation in Food Systems,” In: L. B. & G. F. Steward, Water Activity: Influences in Food Quality, Academic Press, New York. 1981, pp.1-61.
[14]	C. Ameho, C.-Y. O. Chen, D. Smith, C. Sanchez-Moreno, P. E. Milbury and J. Blumberg, “Antioxidant Activity and Metabillites Profile of Quercetin in Vitamin-E-Depleted Rats,” Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, Vol. 19, No. 7, 2008, pp. 467-474. doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2007.06.004
[15]	K. Viljanen, A. L. Halmos, A. Sincliar and M. Heinonen, “Effect of Blackberry and Rasberry Juice on Whey Protein Emulsion Stability,” European Food Research and Technology, Vol. 221, No. 5, 2005, pp. 602-609. doi:10.1007/s00217-005-0033-y
[16]	L. M. Tong, S. Sasaki, D. J. McClements and E. A. Decker, “Antioxidant Activity of Whey Protein in a Salmon Oil Emulsion,” Journal of Food Science, Vol. 65, No. 8, 2000, pp. 1325-1329. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2000.tb10606.x
[17]	S. D. Bhale, Z. Xu, W. Prannyawatkul, J. M. King and J. S. Godber, “Oragano and Rosemary Extracts Inhibit Oxidation of Long Chain n-3 Fatty Acids in Menhaden Oil,” Journal of Food Science, Vol. 72, No. 9, 2007, pp. C504-C509. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00569.x
[18]	P. Schuck, E. Blanchard, A. Dolivet, S. Mejean, E. Onillon, and R. Jeantet, “Water Activity and Glass Transition in Dairy Ingredients,” Dairy Science and Technology, Vol. 85, No. 4-5, 2005, pp. 295-304. doi:10.1051/lait:2005020
[19]	Y. Roos, “Water Activity and Physical States Effects on Amorphous Food Stability,” Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, Vol. 16, No. 6, 1995, pp. 433-447. doi:10.1111/j.1745-4549.1993.tb00221.x
[20]	L. Slade, H. Levine, J. Ievolella and M. Wang, “The Glassy State Phenomenon in Applications for the Food Industry. Approach to Structure-Function Relationships of Sucrose Cookie and Cracker Systems,” Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, Vol. 63, No. 2, 1993, pp. 133-176. doi:10.1002/jsfa.2740630202
[21]	P. Calvo, T. Hernanedez, M. Lozano and D. Gonzán-Dez-Gomez, “Microencapsulation of Extra-Virgin Olive Oil by Spray-Drying: Influence of Wall Material and Olive Quality,” European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, Vol. 112, No. 8, 2010, pp. 852-858. doi:10.1002/ejlt.201000059
[22]	M. P. Melis, E. Angioni, G. Carta, E. Murru, P. Scanu, S. Spada and S. Banni, “Characterization of Conjugated Linoleic Acid and Its Metabolites by RP-HPLC with Diode Array Detector,” European Journal of Lipid Science, Vol. 103, No. 9, 2001, pp. 594-632. doi:10.1002/1438-9312(200109)103:9<617::AID-EJLT6170>3.0.CO;2-C
[23]	M. Czauderna, J. Kowalczy, M. Marounek, J. P. Michalski, A. J. R. Wieczorek and K. A. Krajewska, “A New Internal Standard for HPLC Assay of Conjugated Linoleic Acid in Animal Tissue and Milk,” Czech Journal of An mal Science, Vol. 56, No. 1, 2009, pp. 23-29.
[24]	E. N. Frankel, S.-W. Huang, R. Aeschbash and E. Prior, “Antioxidant Activity of a Rosemary Extract and Its Constituents, Carnosic Acid, Carnosol and Rosmarinic Acid, in Bulk Oil and Oil-In Water Emulsion,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 44, No. 1, 1996, pp. 131-135. doi:10.1021/jf950374p
[25]	P. Rolewski, A. Siger, M. Nogala-Kalucka and K. Rolewski, “Evaluation of Antioxidant Activity of α-tocopherol and Quercetin of Phosphatidylcholine Using Chemiluminescent Detection of Lipid Hydroperoxides,” Polish Journal of Food and Nutritional Sciences, Vol. 59, No. 2, 2009, pp. 123-127.