Leadership Effectiveness in the Care of Internally Displaced Persons’ and Camps in Africa ()
1. Introduction
Displacement around the world has become a cankerworm eating deep into the fabrics of national, regional, and continental existence. It is a daily occurrence that stares the globe in the face, presenting itself in different dimensions: refugee crisis, forced migration, increasing number of internally displaced persons (IDPs) amongst other humanitarian challenges. Displacement occurs when people are unpreparedly removed from their traditional abode or established structure of existence (UNHCR, 2020) . United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR (2019) has reported an unprecedented 79.5 million people around the world who have been forced from home. IDPs just like refugees and asylum seekers, flee due to war, violence, persecution, or natural disasters, and face devastating hardships due to displacement (World101, 2020) . As at 14 June, 2023, UNHCR Global Trend (2023) reported that 108.4 million people worldwide were forcibly displaced at the end of 2022 as a result of persecution, conflict, violence, human rights violations or events seriously disturbing public order—consisting of 35.3 million refugees, 62.5 million internally displaced people 5.4 million asylum seekers.
Internally displaced persons (IDPs have been displaced from their homes and traditional structure but have not crossed an international border, while refugees are displaced persons who have crossed international borders and are managed on the basis of several international regulations (UNHCR, 2020) . The IDPs care is the responsibility of the national government as provided for under the 1998 United Nations Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement. Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC, 2019) reported that at the end of 2019, some 50.8 million people around the world were internally displaced due to armed conflict, generalized violence, or human rights violations. Although forced displacement is a global phenomenon, it is more pronounced in Africa. Africa hosts over one-third of the global forced displacement population (ReliefWeb, 2019) . Africa currently has more than 25 million people who are forcibly displaced (IDPs and Refugees) as a result of conflict and repression and 85% of them come from eight countries: the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), South Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Nigeria, the Central African Republic, and Cameroon.
According to ReliefWeb (2018) on the updates of UNHCR operations, West Africa remains host to the largest number of persons of concern to UNHCR, particularly in the countries surrounding the Lake Chad Basin which was characterized by multiple armed conflicts, violent extremism and human rights violations, coupled with growing poverty, severe food and water shortages, and drought. In Cameroon, population movements remained dynamic in the Far North region due to the activities of cross-border insurgents, as of the end of July 2018, some 239,000 people were internally displaced, and there were 24,000 Cameroonian refugees in Nigeria (ReliefWeb, 2018) . In Mali, the volatile situation in the northern and central parts of the country, as well as insecurity in the border areas, led to continued displacement, as of June 2018, there were some 51,800 IDPs in the country and more than 130,000 refugees in Burkina Faso, Mauritania and Niger. In 2018, approximately 30,000 refugees were newly displaced, including 11,500 people who fled from Mali to the Tillabéri region of Niger. At the same time, the deterioration of the security situation in Burkina Faso has also led to the internal displacement of approximately 15,000 Burkinabé citizens as well as the flight of over 7000 to Mali (ReliefWeb, 2018) .
Nigeria has had an upsurge in the cases of IDPs with the proliferation of militia groups in the last one and a half decades. Among these militias is the dreaded Boko Haram terrorist sect which violently undermines the territorial integrity and authority of the Nigerian state and engenders widespread internal displacement, human rights abuses, public safety, and humanitarian crises. Since 2009, Boko Haram has launched several attacks on lives and destruction of properties in Nigeria, leading to the death of several people and displacement of a considerable population of people, especially in Northeast Nigeria. According to Olufolahan (2015) , Boko Haram had been the most complex, destructive, and mind-boggling security challenge Nigeria has ever faced. As of the end of July 2018, there were close to 2.4 million IDPs in Nigeria and over 227,000 Nigerian refugees in Cameroon, Chad, and Niger (ReliefWeb 2018) . Imasuen (2015) affirms that insurgency has become a threat to global peace and security in the 21st century. He attributed this threat to the fact that it is the highest contributor to humanitarian crises in the form of a rise in human casualties, internally displaced persons, refugee debacles, food insecurity and the spread of various diseases. In view of these displacement challenges, this study seeks to discuss how the leadership of IDP camps can efficiently manage inadequate resources in care of IDPs by formulating structural theory that aligns survival strategies with social needs for efficiency.
2. Statement of the Problem
Before the last one and half decades, Nigeria has had pockets of IDPs, though the recent escalation has made the challenges more formidable. For example, Olagunju (2006) found that the unleashing of terror by the dreaded Boko Haram group has left millions of Nigerians displaced, with varying degrees of scourges and injuries. Consequently, Nigeria particularly has been finding it increasingly difficult and is almost failing in its task to manage its plethora of IDPs. Also, since IDPs and refugees as twins of common woes have similar experiences in the camp, Pittaway (2004) reported that in Kakuma refugee camp, Kenya, the incidences of rape and sexual violence are extremely high and domestic violence is commonplace. Batonon (2019) noted that in Borno State Nigeria, at least 600,000 people are still living in congested camps and informal settlements with no SPHERE humanitarian standards of water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion; food security and nutrition; shelter, settlement and non-food items; and health action; no food and children dying of malnutrition.
As part of measures to improve IDPs camp management, the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) and the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) in their 2015 edition of the Camp Management Toolkit, noted the need for camp management to ensure services and protection provided are in line with national and international laws, guidelines and agreed standards. These guidelines and standards seek to end encampment of displaced persons through the promotion of durable solutions; based on the ethical foundation of humanitarian principles of humanity, neutrality and impartiality, RefWorld (2015) .
Though some authors have discussed challenges associated with the management of refugees and IDP camps, yet, there is a dearth of literature on how the camps are to ensure efficiencies in their operations. This study therefore specifically discussed how camps can be structured in phases for effective management, to overcome the identified challenges of overcrowding, sexual and gender-based violence, insecurity, poverty, malnutrition, domestic violence, and protracted displacement, among others in Sub-Sahara Africa.
3. Theoretical Underpinning
Contingency Theory
This study adopted the contingency theory of leadership to illustrate how structured management can enhance efficiency and productivity in an organisation or a setup. Here, the camp is the setup/organisation. The Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness was propounded by Austrian psychologist Fred E. Fiedler as the first and leading contingency theory in the 1960s. This theory ignores the false dichotomy that someone is either a “good” or “bad” leader. Instead, it focuses on matching the right leadership traits to the situation. The contingency theory of leadership states that effective leadership is contingent upon the situation at hand. Essentially, it depends on whether an individual’s leadership style befits the situation. The theory emphasises the importance of both the leader’s personality and the situation in which that leader operates (Virkus, 2009) . It holds that management techniques should be dependent upon the circumstances. That effectiveness is contingent, or dependent, upon the interplay between the application of management behaviours and specific situations. In other words, management should change depending on the circumstances. One size does not fit all. That is, success in an undertaking is often a combination of the attributes of the leader and the attributes of the challenge. “Good leadership” is contingent upon how one responds to the situation (Miles, 2022) .
In natural disasters or survival situations, tasks are not always well defined or prioritised. Human relations are vital. In situations where tasks are structured, such as in most blue-collar environments or the military, a personable leader is not much of a requirement. Orders come to “do it, or else”. However, in a displaced persons’ camp in Africa, tasks are not usually structured; thus, we have inefficient management of people and resources. The task structure of contingency leadership factor relates to whether the structure of the work task is highly structured, subject to standard procedures and adequate measures of assessment that determines efficiency. When tasks are structured, standardised and assessed, this serves as a good strategy for efficient management to ensure the distribution of available resources to meet needs. Accordingly, structured management results in efficiency.
Further, Donaldson (2001) in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, explained structural contingency theory to be the most effective structure for an organization is contingent (i.e., dependent) on the structure fitting the organization’s level of contingency factors. Where the structure fits the contingencies, then high performance results, whereas, where the structure misfits the contingencies, then low performance results. The main factors determining contingency are size, task uncertainty, and diversification. As size increases, so the fitting structure is more bureaucratic (i.e., has many departments, many hierarchical levels, high specialization, high formalization, and low centralization).
Relating contingency theory with care of IDPs and management of camps show that creation of IDP camps are usually under contingency situations, with deplorable conditions of overcrowding, trauma, malnutrition and insufficient welfare items. As number of IDPs increase, the fitting structure in camps becomes more bureaucratic. However, adopting the four formulated IDP phases will create departments and hierarchical levels, toward specialization for specific needs of IDPs, this formalization will ease the management of camps and make the insufficient welfare items serve only the phase(s) in actual need of such intervention and reduce pressure of centralization. As conditions of IDPs improve in this type of situation, camp managers’ effective leadership will come out prominently.
4. Literature Review
4.1. Leadership Effectiveness
Leadership effectiveness is a multi-faceted term with a wide variety of possible components. European Academy for Executive Education (2023) defined leadership effectiveness as “The successful exercise of personal influence by an individual, which results in accomplishing one or several goals as a result of the coordinated efforts of those who are led.” Leaders can help improve efficiency by ensuring everyone is working towards the same goal and doing what they do best. They provide direction and vision, motivate and inspire others to achieve the organization’s goals, create an environment conducive to success by promoting communication and collaboration among team members (Siena Heights, 2022) .
The three (3) essential elements of effective leadership are Integrity, Capability and Passion (Career Net, 2023) . Integrity and leadership is a combination of honesty and moral principles which is also termed as the strength of character of a leader. Capability deals with skill development and learnability, the will and skill of a leader. That is, from learning a new skill to spotting a new opportunity. Sometimes it could be from relevant questing to accomplish a prescribed task to addressing a daunting social problem; or from building a highly motivated team to trying new ideas. It has to do with developing and adopting every possible way to enable change. It is about developing and adopting every possible way to enable change. Passion is termed as fuel for leadership ambitions. It is only passion that brings life to the dreams of a leader. Passion, practiced with strong integrity and capability, makes a leader more influential, earn fame and successful in associating their core values with greater social or organisational goals, to attain fulfilling outcomes (Career Net, 2023) .
4.2. Displacement
The two major causes of displacement are natural disaster—“act of god” and armed conflict. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugee (UNHCR), “forced displacement” occur “as a result of persecution, conflict, generalized violence or human rights violations”. In Africa, displacement, both internal and cross-border, is frequently the combined result of pressures such drought, flooding, conflict, weak governance and poverty. Sometimes disasters strike in regions already wracked by conflict. This was the case in Somalia, where drought and continued fighting both put pressure on the population, such that it was impossible to identify one or the other as the “tipping point” for movement (Disaster Displacement, 2023) .
Displacement of people is in two categories-IDPs and refugees. According to the United Nations Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, 1998, internally displaced persons (IDPs) are: “persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed.” On the other hand, refugees are people who have fled war, violence, conflict or persecution and have crossed an international border to find safety in another country. The 1951 Refugee Convention defines a refugee as: “someone who is unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion.”
Thus, while Refugees are displaced persons who have crossed borders of their countries, IDPs are displaced within their home countries and they enjoy the same rights as other civilians to the various protections provided by international humanitarian law and as a crucial element of sovereignty, also it is the governments of the states where IDPs are found that have the primary responsibility for their assistance and protection. The international community’s role is complementary (United Nations, 2023) . Statista (2022) reported that in 2022, the Democratic Republic on the Congo counted over 5.5 million IDPs, in a population of around 90 million people. Sudan had more than 3.5 million displaced persons, while Nigeria had about 3.3 million.
4.3. Root Causes of Displacement in Africa
Violent conflict, more than any other factor, leads to displacement in Africa. Despite differences in ethnicities, religions and cultures of countries in the horn of Africa, people of the region are interconnected in one or other ways which contributed to the socio-economic unrest of the region-including. Areas of contests for the control of resources include the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, oil, agriculture and grazing lands and water resources like River Nile. The result has been chronic poverty, unemployment (especially youth), unfair distribution of resources and extreme contestation over decentralised resources, the colonial sentiments in the mindsets of the peoples, dictatorial and oppressive regimes supported and sustained by super nations, among others (Mengistu, 2015) . IOM (2019) noted that population movements in the region remain incredibly dynamic as people moved in and out of situations of vulnerability; thus an estimated 8.1 million remained internally displaced, and 3.5 million refugees and asylum-seekers hosted in the region during the first six months of 2019. It reported that while conflict-induced displacement decreased, intercommunal violence became more frequent in Ethiopia, Somalia and South Sudan. In Rwanda, UNHCR (1994) reported that: “ethnic conflict ignited by population pressure and diminishing land resources were the causes of strife”. Since the 1994 genocide, in which up to two million people fled their homes, Rwanda has suffered repeated waves of displacement. Following the government’s military victory over the perpetrators of the genocide in 1994, the majority of the population fled to Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo), Burundi and Tanzania (Reliefweb, 2003) .
The roots of conflict in West Africa are much more profound and complex; being embedded on the interplay of historical factors, socio-economic crisis, legacies of authoritarianism and the politics of exclusion, international forces, and local struggles (Obi, 2012) . Additional factors contributing to conflicts include bad governance, corruption, human rights violations, poverty, ethnic marginalisation and small arms and light weapons proliferation, among others (Annan, 2014) . UNHCR (2020) noted that with the ongoing crises in the Central African Republic (CAR), Mali and Nigeria, as well as increased insecurity in Burkina Faso, more than 3.7 million people are internally displaced across West African region. In Nigeria, the unending ethnoreligious and political unrest was the result of the consummation of the 1914 marriage of inconvenience between Nigeria’s Southern and Northern Protectorates (Sagay, 2001) . Delineation of culturally knitted kin along state and international borders, and the question of the compatibility of the dissident ethnic groups on the one hand and religious divides on the other hand, with its effects on public safety, human security, demographic displacement and death tolls (Ugorji, 2016) . Osagioduwa and Oluwakorede (2016) also noted that intra-state and intra-regional armed conflicts have continued to result in substantial IDP movements in Africa.
5. Design and Methods
The study consisted of two phases. The first phase was that of conducting a Situation Analysis, assessing selected IDPs camp in order to evaluate their management practices in aligning the survival strategies to the social needs of the IDPs (see Table 1). The second phase was using the knowledge gathered to formulate a conceptual framework towards an improved efficiency in the management of IDP camps (see Figure 1). The study adopted a qualitative research method with both primary and secondary research designs of gathering information in selected IDP and refugee camps visited in Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra Leone between 2012 and 2016 (see Table 1). A purposive sampling method for camp selection, based on language, access and population, was adopted. The camps visited in Nigeria were: Fulfore, Malkohi, NYSC IDP camps in Yola (Northeast), Bakassi Resettlement Camp Calabar, ICC IDP Camp, Benin (South-south), Oru Refugee Camp (Southwest). In Ghana, Budumburam Refugee Camp, Accra was visited, while in Sierra Leone the Grafton IDP (Amputees) Camp in Freetown was visited for data collection (see Table 1). For the primary data, it relied on focus group discussion, structured interview and key informants’ interview (KII) guides administered and completed independently by the respondents. These instruments were considered most appropriate to generate qualitative data because it enabled the researchers to have face-to-face interaction with the camp management and IDPs officials to elicit in-depth responses from them. In Malkohi, Fufore and NYSC camps (government-owned), using simple random sampling technique, ten respondents each were selected through the assistance of the camp manager consisting of NEMA officials and the executive members of IDPs-Camp Residents Association. Seven camp officials in Benin camp responded to KII, while focus group discussions were conducted in Bakassi, Grafton, Budumberam and Oru camps. Researchers were conducted round camp facilities in the camps. The lead author with two research assistants each (who were familiar with respective camps) personally conducted the study, to generate responses from the respondents on IDPs reception practices, stabilisation responses, empowerment/skill acquisition practices and exit strategies from the camp. The data collected were used to analyse camp coordination and conditions of IDPs. The theoretical framework for the study was hinged on Austrian psychologist Fred Edward Fiedler Contingency Theory, which emphasises the importance of both the leader’s personality and the situation in which that leader operates.
5.1. Findings
The findings of the study showed that there was overcrowding in all the camps visited. There were insufficient welfare items leading to malnutrition and death of children and pregnant women. Issues of gender-based violence were common against women and girls and insecurity of lives and properties of camp resident was discovered, as there was an incidence of bombing of IDP camp in Yola, Nigeria. Sexual assault and forced prostitution among young women to earn income for personal care and family support were identified. Domestic violence against women by their intimate partners as transfer of aggression was also reported.
5.2. Discussion of Findings
5.2.1. Stage 1: Situation Analysis of Camp Management Practices
The three camps visited in Yola, Nigeria were populated with victims of Boko haram insurgency, and they were government-owned. Bakassi resettlement camp hosts Nigerian returnees from Bakassi Peninsula consequent upon the international court of Justice judgment between Nigeria and Cameroun. The IDPs in Benin camp were victims of Boko haram insurgency from Adamawa and Borno state Nigeria, while refugees from Liberia and Sierra Leone resided in Oru camp. The Grafton camp in Sierra Leone hosted amputees and some victims of civil war. At the same time, survivors of violent conflicts in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Sudan and other African countries lived in Budumburam refugee camps (see Table 1). Researchers took note of the strength and weaknesses as applicable in each camp. In all the camps, the reception of IDPs to the camps was similar. The registers of in-takes were opened to record demographic details of camp residents and after that, accommodation is assigned based on gender. There were large population-overcrowded accommodation in tents, muds, bricks and wooden houses.
On responses to the daily routine of cleaning, personal hygiene, eating, and response to gender-based violence, findings showed that the camp managers and officers monitored the cleaning of premises, encouraged camp residents to keep personal hygiene and distribute food to IDPs based on availability. The study also found that IDPs were underserved in terms of facilities—leading to trauma, malnutrition and death of many children, poor health, unwanted pregnancies, poverty—idleness, diverse Gender-based violence (Rape, sexual assault, forced prostitution), lack of or low education and insecurity, among others. There was, however, no reporting system for GBV except in Budumburam refugee camp in Ghana, where the Ministry of Social welfare provided GBV reporting mechanism and treatment for survivors of GBV.
Empowerment and skill acquisition in the camps were basically for women. In Malkohi and Fufore camps in Yola, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) had organised counselling sessions on psychosocial issues and trained some women who were to serve as trainers to other women in the camp on skill acquisition in tailoring, cap, shoe and soap making. In Benin camp, few women who were trained by an individual tailoring outfit, with the trainees serving as trainers of other women in the camp. In Grafton Amputees camp, IDPs were males, and they live with their families. Most of the IDPs/amputees were beggars, no skill acquisition. They live like outcasts.
On re-integration plans for the IDPs, camp managers in Malkohi, Fufore and NYSC camps stated that government was yet to draw a re-integration road map. Benin IDP camp management had no plans of re-integration for the camp residents since many of them have lost loved ones and have witnessed the destruction of their properties they would have loved to return to their homes. Bakassi residents also had no plan to reintegrate as the houses they occupied were allocated to them by the United Nations and Nigerian government. For Oru and Budumburam refugee camps, UNHCR had relocated some refugees back to their countries, and those remaining on camps were unsure if they will enjoy the re-integration exercise or not. Basically, in all the IDP camps visited, there was no concrete arrangement for IDPs re-integration.
5.2.2. Stage 2: Construct of a Structural Model to Align Survival Strategies with Social Needs of IDPs
Formulation of Efficiency Theory in Camp Management
Based on the findings showing lapses in the existing system of management of IDPs in camps in the African countries, researchers developed a 4-phased structural framework (see Figure 1) to align survival strategies with social needs of IDPs as a means of improving efficiencies in Camp Management. This is in line with the theory of change. The Centre for Theory of Change (2019) described the theory of change the full description and illustration of how and why the desired change is expected to happen in a particular context. It is focused, in particular, on mapping out or “filling in” what has been described as the “missing middle” between what a program or change initiative does (its activities or interventions) and how these lead to desired goals being achieved; in that activities are linked to a detailed understanding of how change happens.
According to Harries, Hodgson and Noble (2014) :
theory of change is only as useful as its practical application, and we should not get lost in the quest for theoretical perfection. However, taken at face value, as a theory to explain how work is supposed to function. It is at the heart of the strategy. It is the foundation for the development of an impact measurement framework. It should be the cornerstone of attempts to work out whether and how well a mission is achieved. It is the story of how a program is designed and how it is supposed to work.
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Table 1. Summary of IDP camps visited.
Source: Lead Author’s field survey between 2012 and 2016.
Discussing how to create a theory of change, TasCoss Library (2020) noted that:
It is best to create a Theory of Change before deciding how a program will be constructed: it starts with the long-term outcome desired and works backwards to work out how it will be achieved. It is a way of designing a new program. The steps comprise of: Identifying the problem to be addressed; Work out what is to be achieved (your long term goal); Walk backwards to get where one is going; Explain the “assumptions”; Now work out what will do to achieve the desired outcomes; finally Summarise and explain your Theory of Change.
These are all mapped out in an Outcomes Framework. The Outcomes Framework then provides the basis for identifying what type of activity or intervention will lead to the outcomes identified as preconditions for achieving the long-term goal. This leads to better planning and better evaluation, as it is possible to measure progress towards the achievement of longer-term goals (Harries, Hodgson, & Noble, 2014) .
Further, the findings of research carried out by the lead author at different times between 2012 and 2016 in different refugees and IDP camps in some West African states are consistent with the findings of previous authors like Olagunju (2006) and the report of Humanitarian Agencies (IOM, NRC, UNHCR) in the Camp Management Toolkit 2015 edition. The management of IDP camps lack structure and therefore, a need to introduce changes in management structure towards better efficiency.
Following the TacCoss guidelines of the theory of change, this study identified a lack of structured arrangement in the management of IDP camps in Africa as a challenge. The authors worked out the ultimate goal as efficient management of camps, walked backwards to note the lapses in camp management and has proposed a four-phase management strategy (efficiency theory) being—“After-shock”, “Stabilisation”, “Empowerment” and “Re-integration”. Explaining that if IDP camps are structured, and in-takes are grouped based on the time of entry and duration of stay in the camp, reflecting their state of mind and social needs at each phase, there will be improvement and efficiency in camp management.
6. Conceptual Framework
Further to the development of the Efficiency Theory on IDPs camp management, a Conceptual Framework (CF) on its operations was also formulated to illustrate the operations of the four-phase theory (see Figure 1). The CF seeks to demonstrate how efficiency will be enhanced in the care of IDPs and the attendant benefits of the model. The CF indicates the entrance of IDPs into the camp and the systematic movement from one phase to the other, based on the length of stay and needs of IDPs, until IDPs exit the camp through a designed re-integration process. See Figure 1
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Figure 1. Structural theory for the efficient management of internally displaced persons’ camps. Source: Authors Conceptual Framework formulated in 2020.
7. Identified Phases That IDPs Go through in Camp
“After-shock” (IDP-phase-1) (See Figure 1); After-shock is the immediate period after the occurrence of an event, characterised by a mixture of the emotion of gratitude for survival, that transit quickly to solitude, following consciousness of severe human and material loses. Survivors of violence/disaster are compounded many times with psychological trauma on the loss of loved ones and valuable properties. They are disconnected from their structured socio-economic lives into unplanned camps where needs may be unmet. Victims at this stage go through psychological and emotional trauma. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2020) , trauma is a psychological disorder resulting from severe mental or emotional stress or physical injury. It is a challenging and unpleasant experience that causes someone to have mental or emotional problems, usually for a long time. Trauma theorist put to light its various sources as intimate partner violence, natural disasters, loss of loved one, sexual assault or any physical or mental wound, rape, female genital mutilation, and the witness of violence; as experienced by many in the recent Boko Haram terrorist acts that subjected many Nigerians to psychological distortion (Abubakar, 2016) .
In essence, when IDPs are settled in camps immediately after violent conflict, their experience is termed “after-shock”—they are experiencing trauma from losses, assaults, and stress, among others. Therefore, they require psychosocial interventions for psychological and emotional stability, through medical, counselling and welfare support to stabilise their health and living conditions. The goal of trauma healing is to give victims a feeling that they have control over their lives again, through three stages that trauma victims move through as part of the healing process: safety, acknowledgement, and reconnection (Herman, 1992) .
“Stabilisation” (IDP-phase-2) (See Figure 1); Stabilisation is the phase of settlement into a camp routine with a predictable system of meeting basic needs, thus, reinforcing the sense of self-belief and potential for recovery. Since time heals, IDPs are expected to stabilise and overcome their trauma after living in the camp for a reasonable period. They become acquainted with regular family routine—wake up, clean up, go to school/trade, eat, pray, play, among others. For many, idleness set in as they have nothing to engage them after the daily routine. This period of idleness portends gender-based violence and other vices for camp residents especially women and girls. While men face forced conscription, male massacre and sexual assault (Carpenter, 2006) , during conflicts, women and girls are more vulnerable to GBV in camps. Several studies have reported that women and girls were victims of physical and sexual violence in IDP camps. Women are at higher risk of unwanted pregnancies, unsafe abortions, maternal morbidity and mortality (Austin, Guy, Lee-Jones, McGinn, & Schlecht, 2008) . Marama, Yusuf and Ojeme (2015) reported that the IDPs in Boko Haram camps in Nigeria were experiencing “incidents of unwanted pregnancies, rape, child labour/trafficking and sexually transmitted diseases” The negative impacts of sexual violence are significant and long term. These may include physical injuries, sexually transmitted infections including HIV, unwanted pregnancies and mental health effects (Austin et al, 2008) .
Thus, the needs of IDP at this stage are: economic empowerment to overcome idleness; mechanisms for GBV reporting system to protect survivors of GBV; punitive measures to punish the perpetrators of GBV; medical care to treat survivors of GBV; and supply of food and welfare items mainly to prevent/control forced prostitution for survival and to solve malnutrition and infant mortality in IDP camps. According to The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), there were about 100,000 cases of child malnutrition in northern Nigeria in 2016 (Punch Editorial, 2016) . These numbers bring in to question the efficiency of aids and the effectiveness of the strategies employed in the utilisation of the funds to aid the IDPs in the country (Ojo, 2017) .
“Empowerment” (IDP-phase-3) (See Figure 1); Empowerment phase is the stage of acquisition of vocational and necessary management skills toward the economic independence of IDPs. At this stage, the IDPs, haven settled to normal camp life, get trained and equipped with specific skills/vocation to enable them cater for themselves and their families. According to the empowerment theory propounded by Rappaport (1981) , empowerment refers to measures designed to increase the degree of autonomy and self-determination in people and communities in order to enable them to represent their interests in a responsible and self-determined way, acting on their authority. It is the process of becoming stronger and more confident, especially in controlling one’s life, claiming one’s rights, overcome their sense of powerlessness and lack of influence, recognise and use their resources to do work with power.
Robert Adams described empowerment as a process by which people individually and collectively can help themselves and others to maximise the quality of their lives. It is a process of obtaining significant opportunities for marginalised people, either directly by those people, or through the help of non-marginalised others who share their access to these opportunities (Adams, 2008) .
The IDPs are challenged and marginalised as a result of violent conflict that has uprooted them from their socio-political and economic structure into penury, idleness and cultural disconnection. Thus, in IDP camps, the process of empowerment provides them with the prospect for economic independence. According to Ojo (2017) , empowerment is critical to ensure a sustainable action plan that will permanently resolve the issue of internal displacement in Nigeria. One such strategy for a solution to IDP challenges is youth and women empowerment. The reason for the empowerment phase is to ensure that camp residents are economically independent of catering for themselves and their family members and more importantly, to prepare them for re-integration.
“Re-integration” (Post-IDP-phase) (See Figure 1); Re-integration is the phase of coordinated exit from the camp and re-integration into the society as self-sustaining individuals. It is a systematic exit of IDPs from camp life instead of creating an IDP conundrum. It is the role of the national government to ensure that there is a concrete plan for IDPs to return to regular lives in society. According to Ojo (2017) , since the camp is usually a temporary arrangement, the government need to make a road map of re-integration of camp residents back into society. These programs would set things in motion towards achieving a more prosperous and sustainable recovery process for IDPs in the country.
Re-integration is not without some socio-economic challenges to government and the IDPs. To the government, challenges include the need for increased budgetary allocation, cost of transporting huge population back to their communities, relocation of unaccompanied children and too young children to identify their families and home. For the IDPs, the challenges may include lack of food, economic status and home to return to (especially for those that their homes were burnt during the conflict), destruction of communal and family lives, landmine issues, among others. These challenges can lead to protracted camp lives and a massive security threat to society if not adequately handled. Olukolajo, Ajayi and Ogungbenro (2014) opined that, based on the challenges of re-integration, if IDP crises become protracted, there is a higher likelihood that displaced persons will become involved in political violence and be susceptible to militant recruitment. Usually, three types of re-integration are possible; these are voluntary reparation (returning to the community of origin), local integration (absorbing into community displaced to) and resettlement (settling in a different (third) community—outside the original community and community displaced to). According to the International Organisation for Migration (IOM, 2018) assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration (AVRR) is an indispensable part of a comprehensive approach to migration and displaced camps management. It aims at orderly and humane return and reintegration of migrants and displaced persons who are unable or unwilling to remain in camps and wish to return voluntarily to their countries/communities of origin.
8. Benefits of the Categorisation
The proposed four-phase efficiency in the camp management structure in the care of IDPs has many advantages. It will present an organised camp for easy management and leadership effectiveness. Thus, there is a better-streamlined management structure for efficient coordination and control of the flow of people in the camp by accommodating camp residents in sections and phases, according to their arrival and situations—that is from one stage to the other. Where IDPs are grouped following their arrival in camp into phases, then tracking of IDPs individually or as a group will be easy for the management to engage them for required purposes. Here, camp managers can use the grouping strategy to ascertain which of the phases to engage for available social needs. It reduces the pressure of giving available intervention to all camp population. Instead, only a section that requires particular intervention will be accessed and served. This system will ensure that interventions are administered on a need basis. This will lead to an improvement in planning activities, as only IDPs in the critical phase will be planned for. The fact that the entire IDPs in the camp are not under planning will enhance the effective management of available inadequate resources.
If camp management is compartmentalised, accountability for each section will be easier and less cumbersome. Assistant camp managers can be appointed to be in charge of each phase and then report to the Chief Camp Manager. Through this, each section will have coordinated information about the type of intervention required; this can garner the confidence to be specific on the type of intervention required towards seeking for resource mobilisation. This will also make knowledge sharing easy, relevant and workable. It will improve peer counselling by those in the advance phases to those in the early phases. IDPs in the same phase can also build more robust networks to enhance mutual benefits among themselves.
Above all, successful operation of the four-phase theory can enhance reintegration process of economically empowered IDPs into the society, thereby providing the solution to a protracted camp situation; and also establish best practices in the management of IDP camps for effectiveness.
9. Conclusion
This study concluded that the IDPs camp management structure was weak generally, there were no streamlined management protocols, and all IDPs were clamped together in overcrowded accommodation and given the same intervention available. Though all the camps have traces of providing some psychosocial help and empowerment programmes, they are weak, and these are not offered on a need basis, leading to overstretched of available inadequate resources and insufficiencies and also inefficiency in camp management. Therefore, adopting the four-phase efficiency theory of “After-shock”, stabilization, empowerment and re-integration will improve leadership effectiveness and camp management on needs basis.
10. Recommendations
It is recommended that IDP camps should be guided by clear protocols—camp managers and relevant leaders should be trained, to enhance their leadership effectiveness in the care of IDPs and camp management. With the proposed four stages of the camp arrangement, this may help to standardise camp practices and structure/coordinate the various support that other organisations may wish to provide. Besides, to promote efficiency in IDPs camp management, adopting this approach will stem experiences of IDPs in camps, reduce incidences of trauma, idleness, GBV, inequity in the administration of welfare services.
Also, where displaced camps are structured into the proposed phases, it will aid the discharge of duties to ensure that available interventions are aligned with the specific needs of the IDPs. For example, if intervention available is trauma counselling, shock/stress management, treatment of wounds sustained during attacks, only IDPs in the phase of “After-shock” will be invited by camp leaders/managers as participants. The IDPs in the stable state will not need such intervention again. This way of deploying interventions based on needs assessment will serve the IDPs better. Also, where the government or humanitarian organisation has brought empowerment intervention to the camp, only IDPs that have stabilised and ready to acquire such skills would be served. New entrants in the “After-shock” phase may not be able to coordinate themselves and concentrate enough because of the healing process they are undergoing. Thus, if only IDPs at “Empowerment Phase” are invited to benefit, the intervention will go a long way to serve their needs, rather than training some group of people who could not learn or use the knowledge of training because of the peculiarity of the phase they belong to. This type of management strategy will make available resources spread and to cover needs better.
More importantly, it recommended that response mechanisms to care for survivors of GBV should be put in place in displaced person camps to serve the IDPs prone to experiencing GBV. This mechanism will consist of a reporting system by victims of GBV so that medical care (for survivors of GBV) and punitive measures (to punish the perpetrators and to serve as a deterrent to others) can be easily administered. This will go a long way to protect IDPs from various types of GBV and reduce such incidences in the camp.
Moreover, government, civil society organisations and humanitarian agencies are encouraged to deploy interventions of training and extensive empowerment programmes and donation of tools of the trade to IDP camps. Empowering the IDPs will accelerate their re-integration to the larger society. This will reduce the problems of protracted displacement and ensure that reintegrated IDPs are assets rather than a burden to their communities.
Furthermore, formulation of a comprehensive roadmap for reparation, integration and resettlement of IDPs back into the society should be put in place by the national governments in Africa, through the camp management authorities.
Above all, national governments and the camp management should adopt the formulated four phases of camp management strategies for leadership effectiveness in the care of IDPs. For After-shock-IDP-phase-1- psychosocial, moral and spiritual support should be made available to IDPs in this stage. For Stabilisation-IDP-phase-2- stage, family routine/delegation of roles, GBV reporting system should be provided by camp management. Empowerment-IDP-phase-3- requires that formal and vocational education; economic empowerment, training and provision of tools of trade be made available to IDPs as they may need. While, Integration-IDP-phase-4- calls on government to design a roadmap for reparation, integration and resettlement plan, towards the re-integration of IDPs in their communities of origin, host community, or third communities respectively, as affected IDPs may choose. This process is to ensure that IDPs are settled back into communities in any part of the country, to forestall protracted camp situation and its attendant insecurity challenges.