The Effect of Supportive Organizational Climate on Employee Turnover Intention: A Cross-Level Analysis

Yanjie Hao¹, Guanghui Wang²

¹Faculty of Applied Economics, University of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China.
²Business and Management School, Jilin University, Changchun, China.

DOI: 10.4236/jhrss.2022.103021                

Abstract

Employee turnover affects the stable development of enterprise. It is not only an urgent problem that leaders need to think about, but also a research topic that management scholars and economists focus on. Turnover intention can well predict the turnover behavior of employee. Therefore, this paper investigates 50 enterprises and 305 employees in China and uses a cross-level regression model to test the mechanism between supportive organizational climate and employee turnover intention based on the organizational support theory. The results show that the supportive organizational climate can significantly reduce employee turnover intention, and job embedding plays a cross-level partial mediating role, and high commitment work system plays a cross-level moderating role between them. The research suggests that in the Chinese context, managers should not only devote themselves to creating a fine organizational climate for employee, but also actively implement high commitment work system to meet the spiritual needs and material needs of employee, thus reducing their turnover intention and promoting the long-term and stable development of the enterprise.

Keywords

Turnover Intention, Supportive Organizational Climate, Job Embedding, High Commitment Work System

1. Introduction

Generally speaking, employee turnover refers to the termination of the employment relationship between the employee and the employer, and the employee leaves the original enterprise. Employee turnover is an important way of employee flow, which plays an important role in the rational allocation of human resources (Nedzelský, 2016), but frequent or more employees turnover will affect the sustainable development of enterprise (Zhang, 2016). Studies have shown that frequent employee flow will have many negative impacts on enterprises (Surji, 2013), which not only involves cost (Loi et al., 2006), but also causes loss of social capital and human capital, and may reduce corporate performance (Hill, 2009), all of which are unfavorable to the development of enterprises. According to the investigation and research of the American labor market, about 20% of employee turnover is inevitable, and the proportion of inevitable turnover in the whole enterprise is stable and low. The other 80% of turnover are avoidable, and reducing or even eliminating this part of turnover is the task and value of management. The average duration of service in Japan is 12.1 years, with a turnover rate of 11.3 percent. But in China, the average duration is 22 months, with a turnover rate of 18.9 percent, and the first job of post-1995 generation lasted only 7 months. Therefore, employee turnover has always been an important problem in various industries around the world (Santhanam et al., 2017; Stamolampros et al., 2019). Employee turnover is not only a problem that enterprise leaders need to worry about, but also a key topic of management scholars and economists focus on. The analysis results can provide evidence for various industries to retain excellent talents, and it is also an important contribution of human resource management to the economic development of the whole society.

Before the employee puts forward the formal resignation, the idea of resignation must appear first. Therefore, it is more important to study the influencing factors of employee turnover intention, because once the actual turnover behavior occurs, all remedial measures are too late (Ak, 2018). Most scholars study turnover intention from the individual level of employee, such as salary and benefits, work pressure and job satisfaction (Porter et al., 1974; Nawab & Bhatti, 2011; Terera & Ngirande, 2014). Some scholars also focus on the organizational level, including organizational commitment and organizational identity (Allen, 2006; Greenberg & Baron, 2008; Lee & Youngho, 2018; Wee et al., 2020). In recent years, some scholars have found that job embedding can better predict employee turnover intention than job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Jiang et al., 2012; Ramesh & Gelfand, 2010; Wheeler et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2004; Holtom & O’Neill, 2004; Mitchell et al., 2001). In a competitive environment shaped by evolving organizational considerations, more companies are choosing to give their staff the autonomy and support they need to implement fresh solutions, express greater accountability, and achieve lasting results. Therefore, organizational factors are playing an increasingly important role in predicting employee behavior (Adela et al., 2022). Organizational factors include organizational culture, organizational climate and leader type, etc.

However, starting from the context of localization in China, few scholars have considered the possible impact of organizational factors on employee turnover intention, especially whether working in a supportive organizational climate will significantly reduce employee turnover intention. From the perspective of organizational factors, this paper focuses on the role of supportive organizational climate and high commitment work system in predicting employee turnover intention. As a dimension of organizational climate, supportive organizational climate refers to that enterprise or organization attaches importance to the interests and contributions of employees, support them at work and fully consider their needs and interests. When employees feel the existence of organizational support, they will respond to such supportive climate (Bashshur et al., 2011). High commitment work system, as a human resource management practice system of organizational commitment to employees, refers to activities such as training and welfare measures, internal job rotation, employee voice behavior, profit sharing and job security (Xiao & Tsui, 2007). Then, can supportive organizational climate have an impact on employee turnover intention? If so, what are the mechanisms? If not, but why? Does high commitment work system affect the relationship between them? In order to explore these problems, this paper tries to test the effect of supportive organizational climate on employee turnover intention and discover the mechanisms based on organizational support theory and cross-level regression analysis.

The rest of this paper is arranged as follows. Section 2 puts forward the theoretical framework and research hypothesis. Section 3 gives the data and statistical description. Section 4 is the empirical test and results according to the cross-level regression model. Section 5 shows the conclusions, as well as the marginal contribution and deficiency of this research on the basis of summarizing the whole paper.

2. Theoretical Framework and Research Hypothesis

2.1. Theoretical Framework

Organizational support theory suggests that the realization of organizational goals depends on employers’ generous treatment to employee, while employee who is supported by the organization may form more emotional commitment to the organization, and they may even work hard and be willing to respond flexibly when the organization is in trouble (Kurtessis et al., 2017). Its important significance lies in that it emphasizes the organizational support and importance to employee, because this is an important reason for employee to be willing to work in the organization and contribute their own value.

This paper suggests that in the Chinese context, when an enterprise creates a supportive working climate for employee, they will perceive the existence of such support, thus forming a psychological connection, and better embedding in the current enterprise or organization, contributing to the realization of the long-term goals of the enterprise, and thus reducing the turnover intention. In addition, when the enterprise implements a high level of high commitment work system, employees will also feel that the organization meets their material and spiritual needs, and once the needs of employees are met, they will not turnover easily. On the contrary, if the high commitment work system implements by the enterprise is relatively low and the material or spiritual needs of the employees are not satisfied, they may be inclined to leave the organization no matter how good the climate is, and seek another enterprise with higher welfare benefits and better development prospects.

Therefore, based on the organizational support theory, the following theoretical model is constructed in this paper, as shown in Figure 1. Supportive organizational climate and high commitment work system are the variables at the organizational level, while job embedding and turnover intention are the variables at the employee level. Therefore, this paper uses a cross-level regression model to conduct research.

2.2. Research Hypothesis

1) The Influence of Supportive Organizational Climate on Employee Turnover Intention

Human resource management is one of the main organizational factors that affect the employment relationship of organizations (Sophie & Edwards, 2022). At present, most researches on employee turnover intention are based on individual level, but little attention is paid to the influence of organizational factors, which play an important role in shaping and influencing employees reaction to psychological contract breach. Porter and Steers (1973) believes that turnover intention is the withdrawal idea generated by employees who experience job dissatisfaction. Mobley (1977) believes that turnover intention refers to the psychological idea of having the intention of leaving before the actual turnover behavior and looking for and comparing other job opportunities. Based on the viewpoints of the above scholars, this paper redefines turnover intention that it refers to the collection of employees attitudes and psychological activities to leave the organization due to the organization inability to provide work or psychological support for employee. Turnover intention is an important predictor of turnover and has a significant positive impact on turnover behavior. In the face of outstanding employees voluntary resignation, managers often expect to retain them through promotion, salary increase or generous welfare bonus, but it always backfires and even has the opposite effect. Therefore, from the perspective of the enterprise, it is necessary to solve the problem fairly and reasonably within the organization.

Figure 1. Theoretical model.

Supportive organizational climate, as one of the important factors of organizational level, can make enterprise managers focus on the work, life and even psychological change of employee in many ways, and also can make employees feel the organization for their support and affirmation, this kind of psychological feeling of employee turnover intention have negative prediction function (Hayat & Afshari, 2020). Research shows that supportive organizational climate has a significant positive impact on organizational citizenship behavior (Sen & Elmas, 2015), can also significantly promote employees’ job satisfaction (Abdus, 2016) and delay the retirement of the elderly (OudeMulders & Henkens, 2017). And these can significantly reduce employee turnover intention.

Therefore, based on the above analysis, this paper argues that supportive organizational climate once formed, it will create a stable and harmonious environment within the employees, and who feel the climate, will produce on organizational commitment and psychological contract and stay in the organization to continue to work hard, in return for organizations for their support and pay, and won’t leave the organization easily. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed in this paper.

H1. There is a negative correlation between supportive organizational climate and employee turnover intention.

2) The Cross-Level Mediating Role of Job Embedding

Some scholars have pointed out that job embedding is an important factor in predicting turnover intention (Allen, 2006; Crossley et al., 2007; Holtom & Inderrieden, 2006), and that job embedding can predict turnover intention more significantly than job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Felps et al., 2009). Mitchell’s job embedding framework shows that when personal values, career goals and future plans are aligned with the needs of the job, individuals will be consistent with the organization culture and able to match with the community and environment around them. But once leaving the organization, they will lose the current achievements and make great sacrifices. As a result, an embedded employee is more likely to feel the organization’s commitment to them and less likely to leave the organization.

In order to make employees embedded in their current work, they cannot do without the influence of organizational factors. Studies have shown that perceived organizational support can enhance job embedding (Yilmaz & Sabahat, 2017). Based on existing research, this paper think that when enterprise creates supportive organizational climate for employee, which can make people feel the existence of organizational support, consider themselves with the organizational values and culture, and so on various aspects of the matching degree. They will link with colleagues, superiors and organization better in order to avoid the sacrifice and suffer if they leave the enterprise. Thus, they are willing to stay and fully immerse themselves in the organization at work and the community outside of work, further reducing turnover intention. Since supportive organizational climate is a variable at the organizational level, while turnover intention is a variable at the employee level, the following hypothesis is proposed in this paper.

H2. Job embedding plays a cross-level mediating role between supportive organizational climate and employee turnover intention.

3) The Cross-Level Moderating Role of High Commitment Work System

When employees are highly supported and recognized by the organization, they will think that their hard work are worthwhile. It is the support of the organization that makes them psychologically secure and motivated to work that they will be willing to repay the organization with practical actions, forming the principle of reciprocity. However, organizational support cannot be a powerful weapon to bind employee to create profits for them, which may also be closely related to human resource management practices. Usually employees will be as the organization of human resource management practice to their important information, the information is closely related to employees interests, employees from the understanding of human resource management practices and judgment, constantly adjust the organizational environmental characteristics on the impact of their psychological cognitive and emotional tendencies, to seek the rationality of the employees and organizational relations.

Therefore, this paper argues when the enterprise creates supportive organization climate, if the enterprise can also implement high level of high commitment work system, meet material and spiritual aspects needs of employees, then they will strengthen the support organization climate the negative influence to the employee turnover intention. However, if the enterprise fails to meet the needs of employees, they are still inclined to quit and seek jobs with better benefits, no matter how favorable the supportive organizational climate is. Based on the above analysis, and supportive organizational climate is a variable at the organizational level, while turnover intention is a variable at the employee level, the following hypothesis is proposed in this paper.

H3. High commitment work system plays a cross-level moderating role between supportive organizational climate and employee turnover intention. And if high commitment work system is in a higher level, the negative effect is stronger, when it is lower, the negative effect is weaker.

3. Data and Statistical Description

3.1. Measurements

A five-point Likert scale, which ranges from 1 (strongly disagreement) and 5 (strongly agreement), is applied to the measurement of identified variables.

Turnover intention. Turnover intention is the main dependent variable. For the measurement of turnover intention, this paper adopts the 4-item turnover intention scale, and a reverse item is designed in the questionnaire, that is, “I plan to make long-term career development in the company”.

Supportive organizational climate. Supportive organizational climate is the core independent variable. For the measurement of supportive organizational climate, the 4-item scale developed by Gonza’ Lez-Roma is used and translated into Chinese according to its application in the Chinese context to measure employees in different types of enterprises.

Job Embedding. Job embedding is the mediating variable of this paper. For the measurement of job embedding, this paper adopts the 7-item overall measurement scale developed by Crossley, and translates it into Chinese according to its application in the Chinese context to measure the degree of job embedding of employees. Two reverse items are designed in this questionnaire, “I’m tired of this organization” and “It would be easy for me to leave this organization”.

High commitment work system. High commitment work system is the moderating variable of this paper. For the measurement of high commitment work system, this paper adopts the 15-item measurement scale developed by Xiao and Bjorkman.

Control variables. According to the personal characteristics and enterprise characteristics in the context of localization in China, this paper finally determines the control variables at the employee level, including gender, age, spouse status, education level and working years of employees. And control variables at the organizational level include the company’s industry category, unit type, and size. The assignment and description of each variable are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Variables assignment and description.

3.2. Questionnaire Design and Data Collection

The key to the design of the questionnaire in this paper is that it needs to be carried out at the employee level and the organization level respectively for cross-level analysis. First of all, variables at the employee level include turnover intention and job embedding, both of which need to be answered and filled in by employees according to their true thoughts. Secondly, variables at the organizational level include supportive organizational climate and high commitment work system. The supportive organizational climate should be answered and filled in by the employees according to their self-perception of organizational support, and the value of supportive organizational climate at the organizational level of each company is the mean of all employees. The high commitment work system needs to be answered and filled in by the human resource manager of the company.

Therefore, two questionnaires are designed in this paper. One is the employee questionnaire, which is filled in by the employees of all departments of the company, including the basic information such as ID, gender, age, education level and working years, as well as the measurement items of turnover intention, job embedding and supportive organizational climate. The other is the company questionnaire, which is filled in by the human resource manager, including basic information such as the ID, industry of the company, unit type and size, as well as the measurement items of the high commitment work system. The key point of questionnaire design is to match the employee questionnaire of each company with the company questionnaire. Therefore, the human resource manager and employees of each company must fill in the specified ID firstly when filling in the questionnaire in order to match data and provide accurate and effective information for data processing. The collection process is carried out in the form of online link forwarding. The investigators will sent the link to working in domestic enterprise’s classmates, friends or relatives, and tell that they have set a questionnaire ID (each company uniform with an only ID), then they will sent the company questionnaire to human resource manager to fill in, and sent the employee questionnaire to other ordinary clerks (at least five employees) to fill in, so that the questionnaire matches.

In this paper, data are collected by online questionnaire, which lasted for 3 months from October 2019 to January 2020. The survey covers Changchun, Harbin, Shenyang, Beijing, Chongqing and other cities, and targets employees at different levels of companies over 18 years old, with different educational backgrounds and in different industries. Among preliminary investigate, 220 employee questionnaires are distributed and 205 are recovered, and 40 company questionnaires are distributed and 38 are recovered. The employee questionnaires recovery rate is 93.18% and the company questionnaires recovery rate is 95%. After dropping the questionnaires with non-standard filling, missing values and mismatched numbers, the effective questionnaire for preliminary investigate is obtained. There are 196 valid questionnaires with effective recovery rate of 95.6% in employee questionnaires and 34 valid questionnaires with effective recovery rate of 89.47% in company questionnaires. SPSS and Mplus are used to test the reliability and validity of the preliminary investigate data. The results show that Cronbach’s α coefficients of each variable are all larger than 0.8, indicating a high degree of internal consistency of each variable, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) show that the fitting effect is good. Therefore, a large sample survey can be further carried out.

Therefore, on the basis of preliminary investigate, continue to collect questionnaires. Finally, a total of 400 questionnaires are distributed to employees and 313 are recovered, 80 questionnaires are distributed to companies and 77 are recovered. The employee questionnaires recovery rate is 78.25%, the company questionnaires recovery rate is 96.25%. Among them, 305 valid questionnaires are obtained from employee questionnaires with effective recovery rate of 97.44%, and 50 valid questionnaires are obtained from company questionnaires with effective recovery rate of 64.94%. The data are in the Table 2.

3.3. Statistical Description

The statistical description of key variables is shown as Table 3. The mean of turnover intention of the samples is 2.46, and the standard deviation is 0.81. It can be seen that the turnover intention of employees in the samples investigated in this paper is relatively low. The mean of supportive organizational climate is 3.62, and the standard deviation is 0.49. The maximum value is 4.65, and the minimum value is 2.55. Generally speaking, the supportive organizational climate of the samples is good. The mean of job embedding of the samples is 3.42, and the standard deviation is 0.68, indicating that the employees in the sample have a good degree of job embedding. The mean of high commitment work

Table 2. Statistical description of key variables.

Table 3. Statistical description of key variables.

system of the samples is 3.56, with 28 samples above the mean (56%) and 22 samples below the mean (44%).

In the employee level, the number of male samples is 158, accounting for 51.80% of the total number of samples, and that of female samples is 147, accounting for 48.20% of the total number of samples. In the sample, the age of employees is from 26 to 30 years old, accounting for 43.28%, followed by those from 18 to 25 years old, accounting for 32.13%, those from 31 to 40 years old, accounting for 17.38%, and those over 41 years old, accounting for 7.21%. In the sample, the spouse status of employees without spouses accounts for 68.85%, while that of employees with spouses is relatively small, accounting for 31.15%. Among the employees in the sample, master’s degree accounts for the most (64.59%), followed by Doctor’s degree (20.33%), bachelor’s degree or below (15.08%). In the sample, employees who have worked for 1 to 3 years account for 34.10%, followed by those who have worked for 3 to 6 years, accounting for 24.59%, who have worked for 1 year or less account for 18.03%, and those who have worked for 6 to 10 years or more account for 10.16% and 13.12%, respectively.

In terms of the data at the organizational level, the questionnaire is mainly filled by the manager of the human resource management department (82%), and the middle and senior manager are less (18%). Among the industries in which the companies are located, the Internet industry and manufacturing industry account for the highest proportion, both accounting for 18%, followed by banking industry, accounting for 12%, and other industries account for relatively little. Among the surveyed enterprises, state-owned enterprises account for the highest proportion (56%), followed by private enterprises, accounting for 28%, while foreign and joint venture enterprises account for a relatively small proportion (12%). Companies with more than 1000 employees accounted for 52%, followed by companies with 100 to 300 employees (24%), and companies with less than 100 employees (14%). The statistical description of the control variables is in Table 4.

3.4. Data Test

1) Reliability and Validity Test

Firstly, the reliability test of the sample data is carried out in this paper, and the results show that Cronbach’s α coefficients of each variable are all larger than 0.8, indicating that the scale has high reliability and meets the measurement requirements. Secondly, validity test is performed on the data. The results show that KMO are above 0.7, Bartlett sphericity test results are significant, factor loading values are above 0.5, and cumulative interpretation variance is above 50%. Note the collected data can pass the validity test.

CFA results show that the χ² of turnover intention is 2.141, df is 2, although χ² is not significant, but the χ²/df is less than 4, CFI is 1.000, SRMR is 0.011, less than 0.05, RMSEA is 0.015, factor load is above 0.6, except item 3 is close to 0.6. On the whole, the fitting effect of turnover intention is good. The χ² of job

Table 4. Statistical description of control variables.

embedding is 99.724 and is significant, df is 14, CFI is 0.896, and SRMR is 0.054, which is less than 0.08. Except for item 4 and 6, the factor load is small, and the rest are above 0.6. Overall, the fitting effect of job embedding is acceptable. The χ² of supportive organizational climate is 0.164, df is 2. Although χ² is not significant, the χ²/df is less than 4, CFI is 1.000, SRMR is 0.002, RMSEA is 0.000, which is less than 0.05, and the factor load is above 0.6. Overall, the fitting effect of supportive organizational climate is good. CFI of high commitment work system is 0.847, SRMR is 0.086, which is greater than 0.08 but less than 0.1, RMSEA is 0.111, which is greater than 0.1, but its 90% confidence interval is [0.076, 0.145], and the probability of less than 0.05 is 5%. Factor loads are all above 0.6 except for item 1. Generally speaking, the fitting effect of high commitment work system is acceptable. Therefore, based on the test results of reliability and validity, it can be seen that the sample data in this paper is credible and can be further analyzed.

2) Homologous Deviation Test

In order to avoid the influence of homology deviation on the research results, the questionnaires design and layout have been carried out by using pre-programmed control in this paper, but the systematic error cannot be completely eliminated. Therefore, this paper also carried out statistical control, using Harman single factor method for homologous deviation test.

Firstly, this paper conducts unrotated principal component analysis on all item data in the employee questionnaire. Podsakoff and Organ (1986) believes that if the single factor explanatory variation obtained by EFA is less than 50%, the homologous deviation is not serious. Results three factors with eigenvalues larger than 1 are obtained, and the cumulative explanatory variance of the first factor is 48.52%, less than 50%. Independent variables, mediating variables and dependent variables do not have loads in the same factor. Therefore, this paper considers that the homologous deviation of sample data is not serious. Second, Iverson and Maguire (2000) pointed out that if the fitting index of the single factor CFA model is poor, the homologous deviation of sample data is not serious. This paper conducts single factor CFA analysis, the model fitting index obtained is that χ² is 757.3, df is 90, although χ² is significant, χ²/df is 8.4, much higher than the critical value 4, CFI is 0.751, TLI is 0.709, none of them reaches 0.8, SRMR is 0.082, greater than 0.05, RMSEA is 0.156, much higher than 0.05. In general, the fitting effect of this model is poor, so it is considered that the homologous deviation is not serious.

3.5. Correlation Analysis

This paper mainly analysis the correlation between turnover intention, job embedding, supportive organizational climate and high commitment work system, and added the control variables of employee gender, age, spouse status and working years, as well as the industry category, unit type and size of the enterprise. The correlation analysis results among variables are shown as Table 5.

Table 5. Correlation analysis results.

Note: Since there are too many variables in this paper, only key research variables and control variables significantly related to turnover intention are given in this table. ***, ** and * in the table represent significant at the level of 1%, 5% and 10% respectively.

According to the correlation analysis results, turnover intention is significantly negatively correlated with supportive organizational climate (−0.437, P < 0.01), and with job embedding (−0.736, P < 0.01). There is a significant positive correlation between supportive organizational climate and job embedding (0.445, P < 0.01), and between supportive organizational climate and high commitment work system (0.309, P < 0.01). After calculation, ICC (1) of supportive organizational climate is 0.276, much larger than 0.059, ICC (2) is 0.950, larger than 0.6, internal consistency coefficient rwg is 0.823, larger than the critical value 0.7. Therefore, this paper can use cross-level model to perform regression analysis on data.

4. The Empirical Model and Results

4.1. The Empirical Model

Model 1: Test the cross-level main effect of supportive organizational climate on turnover intention.

$Y_{ij}={\beta }_{0j}+{Z^{\prime }}_{ij}{\beta }_j+{\epsilon }_{ij}$ (1)

${\beta }_{0j}={\gamma }_{00}+{\gamma }_{01}{X}_j+{E^{\prime }}_j{\gamma }_{02}+{\mu }_{0j}$ (2)

where $i=1,2,\cdots ,n$, $j=1,2,\cdots ,m$. $Y_{ij}$ represents the turnover intention of individual i, $X_j$ represents the supportive organizational climate of the enterprise j, ${Z^{\prime }}_{ij}$ is the control variables at the employee level, including age, gender, education level, working years, and ${E^{\prime }}_j$ is the control variables at the organization level, including enterprise industry, unit type and enterprise scale. ${\beta }_{0j}$ is the random intercept, ${\beta }_j$ is the control variable coefficient vector. ${\gamma }_{00}$ is the fixed part of the random intercept, ${\gamma }_{01}$ is the supportive organizational climate coefficient, ${\gamma }_{02}$ is the regression coefficient vector of organization level variables, and ${\epsilon }_{ij}$ is the random error term, ${\mu }_{0j}$ is the residual.

Model 2: Examine the cross-level mediating role of job embedding between supportive organizational climate and turnover intention. On the basis of Model 1, the cross-level effect of supportive organizational climate on job embedding is tested:

$M_{ij}={\beta }_{0j}^1+{Z^{\prime }}_{ij}{\beta }_j^1+{\epsilon }_{ij}^1$ (3)

${\beta }_{0j}^1={\gamma }_{00}^1+{\gamma }_{01}^1{X}_j+{E^{\prime }}_j{\gamma }_{02}^1+{\mu }_{0j}^1$ (4)

where $M_{ij}$ is the job embedding of employee level individual i who works in enterprise j. Then, examine the impact of job embedding on turnover intention:

$Y_{ij}={\beta }_{0j}^2+{\beta }_{1j}^2{M}_{ij}+{Z^{\prime }}_{ij}{\beta }_j^2+{\epsilon }_{ij}^2$ (5)

${\beta }_{0j}^2={\gamma }_{00}^2+{\gamma }_{01}^2{X}_j+{E^{\prime }}_j{\gamma }_{02}^2+{\mu }_{0j}^2$ (6)

Model 3: Examine the cross-level moderating effect of high commitment work system on supportive organizational climate and turnover intention. Based on Model 2, the influence of interaction terms between supportive organizational climate and high commitment work system on turnover intention is tested:

$Y_{ij}={\beta }_{0j}^3+{\beta }_{1j}^3{M}_{ij}+{Z^{\prime }}_{ij}{\beta }_j^3+{\epsilon }_{ij}^3$ (7)

${\beta }_{0j}^3={\gamma }_{00}^3+{\gamma }_{01}^3{X}_j+{\gamma }_{10}^3{W}_j+{\gamma }_{11}^3{X}_j{W}_j+{E^{\prime }}_j{\gamma }_{02}^3+{\mu }_{0j}^3$ (8)

where, $W_j$ is the high commitment work system of the enterprise j. ${\gamma }_{01}^3$ is the influence of supportive organizational climate on employee turnover intention, ${\beta }_{1j}^3$ is the mediating effect of job embedding on employee turnover intention, ${\gamma }_{11}^3$ represents the moderating effect of the interaction between supportive organizational climate and high commitment work system on employee turnover intention.

4.2. Estimation Results

According to the regression model in 4.1, this paper uses Mplus for regression analysis, and the cross-level regression estimation results are shown in Table 6. First of all, the fitting indexes of model 1 are χ²/df = 2.87, RMSEA = 0.078, CFI = 0.627, intra-group SRMR = 0.005, inter-group SRMR = 0.052. The results show that the data fit model 1 well. It can be seen from the regression results that supportive organizational climate has a significant negative effect on turnover intention (−0.719, P < 0.01), which indicates that hypothesis 1 is supported.

Secondly, the fitting indexes of model 2 are χ²/df = 1.56, RMSEA = 0.043, CFI = 0.953, intra-group SRMR = 0.032, inter-group SRMR = 0.060. The results show that the data fit model 2 well. As can be seen from Table 6, supportive organizational climate has a significant negative effect on turnover intention (−0.181, P < 0.05) and has a significant positive effect on job embedding (0.651, P < 0.01), and job embedding has a significant negative effect on turnover intention (−0.791, P < 0.01). This result indicates that hypothesis 2 is supported and that job embedding plays a cross-level partial mediating role between supportive organizational climate and turnover intention.

Third, the fitting indexes of model 3 are χ²/df = 2.24, RMSEA = 0.064, CFI = 0.843, intra-group SRMR = 0.031, inter-group SRMR = 0.087. The results show that the data fit model 3 well. As Table 6, supportive organizational climate has a significant negative effect on turnover intention (−0.717, P < 0.01), and the cross-level interaction between supportive organizational climate and high-commitment work system has a significant negative effect on turnover intention (−0.278, P < 0.01), indicating that hypothesis 3 is supported. It also shows that high commitment work system plays a cross-level moderating role between supportive organizational climate and turnover intention.

As for the control variables, the regression results show that, at the organizational level, company size is significantly correlated with turnover intention. Among them, the employee turnover intention in enterprises with less than 500 employees is significantly higher than that of other enterprises. Among them, job embedding of employees in state-owned enterprises is significantly higher than that of other types of enterprises. At the employee level, age, education level and working years are not significantly correlated with turnover intention. On the one hand, the reason for the result is due to the problem of variable

Table 6. The cross-level regression results.

Note: a. Take other unit types as reference group; b. less than 100 employees as reference group; c. non-spouse as the reference group; d. junior college and below as the reference group. ***, ** and * in the table represent significant at the level of 1%, 5% and 10% respectively.

measurement. For example, the variables of age and working years are measured in segments, ignoring the differences within groups. On the other hand, due to the composition of the samples, the samples in this paper are characterized by high education, low age and junior seniority. For example, among the respondents, 92.79% of employees is under 40 years old, 84.92% of employees is with master’s degree or above, and 76.72% are less than 6 years of service. These sample characteristics may result in insignificant estimation results of relevant variables.

4.3. The Results Discussed

Based on the regression results, this paper discusses in detail. First, this paper find that supportive organizational climate have a significant cross-level negative effect on employee turnover intention, this also shows when company build a kind of supportive organizational climate for employees, it can significantly reduce the idea of employee who wants to leave the company, and then avoid them leave. As so far, there is no empirical study conducted on supportive organizational climate as a dependent variable of turnover intention. Based on the organizational support theory, the results obtained in this paper well support hypothesis 1 and enrich the research on turnover model.

Secondly, the results in this paper show that job embedding plays a cross-level mediating role between supportive organizational climate and employee turnover intention. The conclusion shows that, when the enterprise can ensure employees contributions, and provide support and help in the work, employees will also be able to feel the concern and support from the organization, thus they are willing to embedded in the current work and organization, and hope that through hard work in return for organization, they will stay and continue to work in the enterprises. Although job embedding can predict employee turnover better than job satisfaction and organizational commitment, it is rare to study employee turnover intention using job embedding as a mediator. Especially, the cross-level mediating effect of job embedding as supportive organizational climate and employee turnover intention has not yet emerged. Therefore, the conclusion of this paper has enriched the research of cross-level regression model.

Finally, the result is that high commitment work system plays a cross-level moderating role between supportive organizational climate and employee turnover intention. And the level of high commitment work system of the enterprise is higher, supportive organizational climate has a stronger negative effect on employee turnover intention. That is, the more it can reduce the turnover intention of employee. In the new era, high salary is no longer the only tool to retain employees, while the enterprise can provide employees with development prospects, material satisfaction and spiritual encouragement, which can also become an important weapon to reduce the turnover of employee. High commitment work system can precisely meet these needs. Therefore, the implementation level of high commitment work system of enterprises is high, which indicates that the material security and spiritual satisfaction they provide to employees can be deeply rooted in the hearts of employee. When the supportive organization climate of enterprises is good, the high level of high commitment work system can significantly reduce employee turnover intention.

5. The Research Conclusion

Based on the matching survey data of 50 human resource managers and 305 employees in Chinese enterprises, this paper adopts a cross-level regression model to test the effect of supportive organizational climate on turnover intention at the employee level and its mechanism. And the research conclusions are as follows. First, supportive organizational climate can significantly reduce employees turnover intention, and job embedding plays a cross-level partially mediating role between them. When the enterprise builds a healthy positive work climate for employees, and provides them with a safe type supportive organizational climate, employees psychologically feel the support of the enterprise, thus to form a more emotional commitment, more deeply embedded in the current work of the department or organization, connect with colleagues, to achieve the goal of the enterprise and make efforts together, thus reducing the idea of leaving, and willing to remain in the current organization.

Second, high commitment work system plays a cross-level moderating role between supportive organizational climate and employee turnover intention. If the enterprise can provide employee with human resource management practices such as training, internal promotion opportunities, stock rights or dividends, and consider employees’ opinions and avoid firing them easily, the negative impact of supportive organizational climate on employee turnover intention will be strengthened. Therefore, in order to retain employees, enterprises should not only provide a supportive organizational climate to meet their needs, but also need to meet their material and spiritual expectations, and try to meet their various needs to stay in the enterprise.

This paper makes some suggestions for managers. First of all, enterprises should be committed to creating a good supportive organizational climate for employees. Managers must always pay attention to the working status of employees, understand their working and living conditions, try to support them at work and acknowledge their contributions to the enterprise. Secondly, enterprises should actively implement high commitment work system. Especially human resource departments should carefully plan for the enterprise system. Because a complete set of human resource management practice is not only to develop compensation according to the performance or productivity level of employees, should also be from benefits, such as social security and paid vacation, equity share out bonus material aspects, such as to satisfy the basic living needs of the employees, as regards the spirit. For example, internal promotion opportunities and rewarding voice behavior provide employees with a vision of development prospects. It can make the enterprise not only improve the system of choose and employ persons, the standard management system, and can also make contributions to normative development of domestic enterprises, the most important is the ability to work through high commitment work system, significantly reducing staff in the idea of retaining talents for the enterprise, enhance competitiveness and achieve the company under the new economic situation better and faster development.

Although this paper establishes a cross-level research model of supportive organizational climate and employee turnover intention, and testes its influence relationship and mechanism through empirical analysis, which enriches the research on turnover model and provided management enlightenment for enterprises, there are still some limitations in this paper. This is mainly reflected in the under representation of sample size. In the sample data, although the location of the company covers nearly 20 cities in China, due to the limitation of collection cost and human connections, the sample size of the company in each city is very small, and the company in all industry categories in one city cannot be included. In addition, there are a large number of young, highly educated and junior employees in the sample, which may lead to a slight deviation between the filling information and the actual situation of the company due to the fact that the general employees are new employees. Therefore, the data sample size needs to be expanded in future studies. Finally, the investigation time in this paper is short and the regression method is single. Long-term data and other methods can be considered for further analysis in the future.

Acknowledgements

Thanks for the support of the National Social Science Foundation (Program No. 20BJY051).

References

1. 1. Abdus, S. (2016). Relationship between Perceived Organizational Politics, Supportive Organizational Climate and Job Satisfaction in Thai Higher Education Sector. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 7, 396-403. [Paper reference 1]


2. 2. Adela, R. B., Miguel, C., Sarah, D., de Lange, A. H., & Jaime, L. (2022). Which Personal and Organizational Factors Influence the Organizational Commitment and Job Satisfaction of Shipyard Blue-Collar Workers? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19, Article 4849. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084849 [Paper reference 1]


3. 3. Ak, B. (2018). Turnover Intention Influencing Factors of Employees: An Empirical Work Review. Journal of Entrepreneurship & Organization Management, 7, Article ID: 1000253. https://doi.org/10.4172/2169-026X.1000253 [Paper reference 1]


4. 4. Allen, D. G. (2006). Do Organizational Socialization Tactics Influence Newcomer Embeddedness and Turnover? Journal of Management, 32, B1-B6. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206305280103 [Paper reference 2]


5. 5. Bashshur, M. R., Hernández, A., & González-Romá, V. (2011). When Managers and Their Teams Disagree: A Longitudinal Look at the Consequences of Differences in Perceptions of Organizational Support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 558-573. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022675 [Paper reference 1]


6. 6. Crossley, C. D., Bennett, R. J., Jex, S. M., & Burnfield, J. L. (2007). Development of a Global Measure of Job Embeddedness and Integration into a Traditional Model of Voluntary Turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1031-1042. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17638463https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.1031 [Paper reference 1]


7. 7. Felps, W., Mitchell, T. R., Herman, D. R., Lee, T. W., Holtom, B. C., & Harman, W. S. (2009). Turnover Contagion: How Coworkers’ Job Embeddedness and Job Search Behaviors Influence Quitting. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 545-561. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.41331075 [Paper reference 1]


8. 8. Greenberg, J., & Baron, R. A. (2008). Behavior in Organizations: Understanding and Managing the Human Side of Work. Pearson Prentice Hall. [Paper reference 1]


9. 9. Hayat, A., & Afshari, L. (2020). Supportive Organizational Climate: A Moderated Mediation Model of Workplace Bullying and Employee Well-Being. Personnel Review, 50, 1685-1704. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-06-2020-0407 [Paper reference 1]


10. 10. Hill, G. C. (2009). The Effect of Frequent Managerial Turnover on Organizational Performance: A Study of Professional Baseball Managers. Social Science Journal, 46, 557-570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2008.11.001 [Paper reference 1]


11. 11. Holtom, B. C., & Edward, J. I. (2006). Integrating the Unfolding Model and Job Embeddedness Model to Better Understand Voluntary Turnover. Journal of Managerial Issues, 18, 35-452. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-00794-001 [Paper reference 1]


12. 12. Holtom, B. C., & O’Neill, B. S. (2004). Job Embeddedness: A Theoretical Foundation for Developing a Comprehensive Nurse Retention Plan. The Journal of Nursing Administration, 34, 216-227. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005110-200405000-00005 [Paper reference 1]


13. 13. Iverson, R. D., & Maguire, C. (2000). The Relationship between Job and Life Satisfaction: Evidence from a Remote Mining Community. Human Relations, 53, 807-839. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726700536003 [Paper reference 1]


14. 14. Jiang, K., Liu, D., McKay, P. F., Lee, T. W., & Mitchell, T. R. (2012). When and How Is Job Embeddedness Predictive of Turnover? A Meta-Analytic Investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97, 1077-1096. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028610 [Paper reference 1]


15. 15. Kurtessis, J.N., Eisenberger, R., Ford, M.T., Buffardi, L.C., Stewart, K.A., & Adis, C. (2017). Perceived Organizational Support: A Meta-Analytic Evaluation of Organizational Support Theory. Journal of Management, 43, 1854-1884. [Paper reference 1]


16. 16. Lee, H., & Youngho, O. (2018). A Study on the Effects of Internal Marketing Elements on the Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Turnover Intention and Customer Orientation. The Korean Academic Association of Business Administration, 31, 49-74. https://doi.org/10.18032/kaaba.2018.31.1.49 [Paper reference 1]


17. 17. Lee, T. W., Mitchell, T. R., Sablynski, J. C., & Holtom, B. C. (2004). The Effects of Job Embeddedness on Organizational Citizenship, Job Performance, Volitional Absences, and Voluntary Turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 47, 711-722. https://doi.org/10.5465/20159613 [Paper reference 1]


18. 18. Loi, R., Hang, Y. N., & Foley, S. (2006). Linking Employees’ Justice Perceptions to Organizational Commitment and Intention to Leave: The Mediating Role of Perceived Organizational Support. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79, 101-120. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317905X39657 [Paper reference 1]


19. 19. Mitchell, T. R., Holtom, B. C., Lee, T. W., Sablynski, J. C., & Erez, M. (2001). Why People Stay: Using Job Embeddedness to Predict Voluntary Turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 1102-1121. https://doi.org/10.5465/3069391 [Paper reference 1]


20. 20. Mobley, W. H. (1977). I-termediate Linkages in the Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Employee Turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 237-240. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.62.2.237 [Paper reference 1]


21. 21. Nawab, S., & Bhatti, K. K. (2011). Influence of Employee Compensation on Organizational Commitment and Job Satisfaction: A Case Study of Educational Sector of Pakistan. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 2, 25-32. https://ijbssnet.com/journals/Vol._2_No._8;_May_2011/3.pdf [Paper reference 1]


22. 22. Nedzelsky, R. (2016). Human Resources Allocation in Project Management. IBIMA, 27, 2015-2024. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303895710_Human_Resources_Allocation_in_Project_Management [Paper reference 1]


23. 23. OudeMulders, M. J., & Henkens, K. (2017). Dose a Supportive Organizational Climate Make Older Workers Want to Retire Later? Innovation in Aging, 1, 1200. [Paper reference 1]


24. 24. Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-Reports in Organizational Research: Problems and Prospects. Journal of Management, 12, 531-544. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920638601200408 [Paper reference 1]


25. 25. Porter, L. W., & Steers, R. M. (1973). Organizational, Work, and Personal Factors in Employee Turn-over and Absenteeism. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 151-176. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034829 [Paper reference 1]


26. 26. Porter, L. W., Steers, R. M., Mowday, R. T., & Boulian, P. V. (1974). Organizational Commitment, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover among Psychiatric Technicians. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59, 603-609. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037335 [Paper reference 1]


27. 27. Ramesh, A., & Gelfand, M. J. (2010). Will They Stay or Will They Go? The Role of Job Embeddedness in Predicting Turnover in Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 807-823. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019464 [Paper reference 1]


28. 28. Santhanam, N., T. J., K., Dyaram, L., & Ziegler, H. (2017). Impact of Human Resource Management Practices on Employee Turnover Intentions: Moderating Role of Psychological Contract Breach. Journal of Indian Business Research, 9, 212-228. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIBR-10-2016-0116 [Paper reference 1]


29. 29. Sen, Y., & Elmas, S. (2015). Effects of Supportive Organizational Climate and Positive Psychological Capital on Organizational Citizenship Behavior. European Journal of Business and Management, 7, 62-67. [Paper reference 1]


30. 30. Sophie, L. A., & Edwards, M. R. (2022). Insider Econometrics Meets People Analytics and Strategic Human Resource Management. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 33, 2373-2419. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2020.1847166 [Paper reference 1]


31. 31. Stamolampros, P., Korfiatis, N., Chalvatzis, K., & Buhalis, D. (2019). Job Satisfaction and Employee Turnover Determinants in High Contact Services: Insights from Employees’ Online Reviews. Tourism Management, 75, 130-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2019.04.030 [Paper reference 1]


32. 32. Surji, K. M. (2013). The Negative Effect and Consequences of Employee Turnover and Retention on the Organization and Its Staff. European Journal of Business and Management, 5, 52-65. [Paper reference 1]


33. 33. Terera, S., & Ngirande, H. (2014). The Impact of Rewards on Job Satisfaction and Employee Retention. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5, 481-487. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n1p481 [Paper reference 1]


34. 34. Wee, K. H., Bang, W. S., & Park, J. Y. (2020). A Study on Effect Relationships of Coaching Leadership Job Sat-isfaction, Organizational Commitment, Turnover Intention. International Journal of IT-Based Social Welfare Promotion and Management, 7, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.21742/IJSWPM.2020.7.1.01 [Paper reference 1]


35. 35. Wheeler, A. R., Harris, K. J., & Harvey, P. (2010). Moderating and Mediating the HRM Effectiveness—Intent to Turnover Relationship: The Roles of Supervisors and Job Embeddedness. Journal of Managerial Issues, 22, 182-196. [Paper reference 1]


36. 36. Xiao, Z. X., & Tsui, A. (2007). When Brokers May Not Work: The Cultural Contingency of Social Capital in Chinese High-Tech Firms. Administrative Science Quarterly, 52, 1-31. https://doi.org/10.2189/asqu.52.1.1 [Paper reference 1]


37. 37. Yilmaz, A., & Sabahat, C. S. (2017). The Effect of Employee Advocacy and Perceived Organizational Support on Job Embeddedness and Turnover Intention in Hotels. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Management, 31, 118-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2016.12.002 [Paper reference 1]


38. 38. Zhang, Y. (2016). A Review of Employee Turnover Influence Factor and Countermeasure. Journal of Human Resource and Sustainability Studies, 4, 85-91. https://doi.org/10.4236/jhrss.2016.42010 [Paper reference 1]

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

References

[1]	Abdus, S. (2016). Relationship between Perceived Organizational Politics, Supportive Organizational Climate and Job Satisfaction in Thai Higher Education Sector. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 7, 396-403.
[2]	Adela, R. B., Miguel, C., Sarah, D., de Lange, A. H., & Jaime, L. (2022). Which Personal and Organizational Factors Influence the Organizational Commitment and Job Satisfaction of Shipyard Blue-Collar Workers? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19, Article 4849. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084849
[3]	Ak, B. (2018). Turnover Intention Influencing Factors of Employees: An Empirical Work Review. Journal of Entrepreneurship & Organization Management, 7, Article ID: 1000253. https://doi.org/10.4172/2169-026X.1000253
[4]	Allen, D. G. (2006). Do Organizational Socialization Tactics Influence Newcomer Embeddedness and Turnover? Journal of Management, 32, B1-B6. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206305280103
[5]	Bashshur, M. R., Hernández, A., & González-Romá, V. (2011). When Managers and Their Teams Disagree: A Longitudinal Look at the Consequences of Differences in Perceptions of Organizational Support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 558-573. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022675
[6]	Crossley, C. D., Bennett, R. J., Jex, S. M., & Burnfield, J. L. (2007). Development of a Global Measure of Job Embeddedness and Integration into a Traditional Model of Voluntary Turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1031-1042. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17638463 https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.1031
[7]	Felps, W., Mitchell, T. R., Herman, D. R., Lee, T. W., Holtom, B. C., & Harman, W. S. (2009). Turnover Contagion: How Coworkers’ Job Embeddedness and Job Search Behaviors Influence Quitting. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 545-561. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.41331075
[8]	Greenberg, J., & Baron, R. A. (2008). Behavior in Organizations: Understanding and Managing the Human Side of Work. Pearson Prentice Hall.
[9]	Hayat, A., & Afshari, L. (2020). Supportive Organizational Climate: A Moderated Mediation Model of Workplace Bullying and Employee Well-Being. Personnel Review, 50, 1685-1704. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-06-2020-0407
[10]	Hill, G. C. (2009). The Effect of Frequent Managerial Turnover on Organizational Performance: A Study of Professional Baseball Managers. Social Science Journal, 46, 557-570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2008.11.001
[11]	Holtom, B. C., & Edward, J. I. (2006). Integrating the Unfolding Model and Job Embeddedness Model to Better Understand Voluntary Turnover. Journal of Managerial Issues, 18, 35-452. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-00794-001
[12]	Holtom, B. C., & O’Neill, B. S. (2004). Job Embeddedness: A Theoretical Foundation for Developing a Comprehensive Nurse Retention Plan. The Journal of Nursing Administration, 34, 216-227. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005110-200405000-00005
[13]	Iverson, R. D., & Maguire, C. (2000). The Relationship between Job and Life Satisfaction: Evidence from a Remote Mining Community. Human Relations, 53, 807-839. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726700536003
[14]	Jiang, K., Liu, D., McKay, P. F., Lee, T. W., & Mitchell, T. R. (2012). When and How Is Job Embeddedness Predictive of Turnover? A Meta-Analytic Investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97, 1077-1096. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028610
[15]	Kurtessis, J.N., Eisenberger, R., Ford, M.T., Buffardi, L.C., Stewart, K.A., & Adis, C. (2017). Perceived Organizational Support: A Meta-Analytic Evaluation of Organizational Support Theory. Journal of Management, 43, 1854-1884.
[16]	Lee, H., & Youngho, O. (2018). A Study on the Effects of Internal Marketing Elements on the Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Turnover Intention and Customer Orientation. The Korean Academic Association of Business Administration, 31, 49-74. https://doi.org/10.18032/kaaba.2018.31.1.49
[17]	Lee, T. W., Mitchell, T. R., Sablynski, J. C., & Holtom, B. C. (2004). The Effects of Job Embeddedness on Organizational Citizenship, Job Performance, Volitional Absences, and Voluntary Turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 47, 711-722. https://doi.org/10.5465/20159613
[18]	Loi, R., Hang, Y. N., & Foley, S. (2006). Linking Employees’ Justice Perceptions to Organizational Commitment and Intention to Leave: The Mediating Role of Perceived Organizational Support. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79, 101-120. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317905X39657
[19]	Mitchell, T. R., Holtom, B. C., Lee, T. W., Sablynski, J. C., & Erez, M. (2001). Why People Stay: Using Job Embeddedness to Predict Voluntary Turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 1102-1121. https://doi.org/10.5465/3069391
[20]	Mobley, W. H. (1977). I-termediate Linkages in the Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Employee Turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 237-240. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.62.2.237
[21]	Nawab, S., & Bhatti, K. K. (2011). Influence of Employee Compensation on Organizational Commitment and Job Satisfaction: A Case Study of Educational Sector of Pakistan. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 2, 25-32. https://ijbssnet.com/journals/Vol._2_No._8;_May_2011/3.pdf
[22]	Nedzelsky, R. (2016). Human Resources Allocation in Project Management. IBIMA, 27, 2015-2024. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303895710_Human_Resources_Allocation_in_Project_Management
[23]	OudeMulders, M. J., & Henkens, K. (2017). Dose a Supportive Organizational Climate Make Older Workers Want to Retire Later? Innovation in Aging, 1, 1200.
[24]	Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-Reports in Organizational Research: Problems and Prospects. Journal of Management, 12, 531-544. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920638601200408
[25]	Porter, L. W., & Steers, R. M. (1973). Organizational, Work, and Personal Factors in Employee Turn-over and Absenteeism. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 151-176. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034829
[26]	Porter, L. W., Steers, R. M., Mowday, R. T., & Boulian, P. V. (1974). Organizational Commitment, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover among Psychiatric Technicians. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59, 603-609. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037335
[27]	Ramesh, A., & Gelfand, M. J. (2010). Will They Stay or Will They Go? The Role of Job Embeddedness in Predicting Turnover in Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 807-823. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019464
[28]	Santhanam, N., T. J., K., Dyaram, L., & Ziegler, H. (2017). Impact of Human Resource Management Practices on Employee Turnover Intentions: Moderating Role of Psychological Contract Breach. Journal of Indian Business Research, 9, 212-228. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIBR-10-2016-0116
[29]	Sen, Y., & Elmas, S. (2015). Effects of Supportive Organizational Climate and Positive Psychological Capital on Organizational Citizenship Behavior. European Journal of Business and Management, 7, 62-67.
[30]	Sophie, L. A., & Edwards, M. R. (2022). Insider Econometrics Meets People Analytics and Strategic Human Resource Management. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 33, 2373-2419. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2020.1847166
[31]	Stamolampros, P., Korfiatis, N., Chalvatzis, K., & Buhalis, D. (2019). Job Satisfaction and Employee Turnover Determinants in High Contact Services: Insights from Employees’ Online Reviews. Tourism Management, 75, 130-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2019.04.030
[32]	Surji, K. M. (2013). The Negative Effect and Consequences of Employee Turnover and Retention on the Organization and Its Staff. European Journal of Business and Management, 5, 52-65.
[33]	Terera, S., & Ngirande, H. (2014). The Impact of Rewards on Job Satisfaction and Employee Retention. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5, 481-487. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n1p481
[34]	Wee, K. H., Bang, W. S., & Park, J. Y. (2020). A Study on Effect Relationships of Coaching Leadership Job Sat-isfaction, Organizational Commitment, Turnover Intention. International Journal of IT-Based Social Welfare Promotion and Management, 7, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.21742/IJSWPM.2020.7.1.01
[35]	Wheeler, A. R., Harris, K. J., & Harvey, P. (2010). Moderating and Mediating the HRM Effectiveness—Intent to Turnover Relationship: The Roles of Supervisors and Job Embeddedness. Journal of Managerial Issues, 22, 182-196.
[36]	Xiao, Z. X., & Tsui, A. (2007). When Brokers May Not Work: The Cultural Contingency of Social Capital in Chinese High-Tech Firms. Administrative Science Quarterly, 52, 1-31. https://doi.org/10.2189/asqu.52.1.1
[37]	Yilmaz, A., & Sabahat, C. S. (2017). The Effect of Employee Advocacy and Perceived Organizational Support on Job Embeddedness and Turnover Intention in Hotels. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Management, 31, 118-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2016.12.002
[38]	Zhang, Y. (2016). A Review of Employee Turnover Influence Factor and Countermeasure. Journal of Human Resource and Sustainability Studies, 4, 85-91. https://doi.org/10.4236/jhrss.2016.42010